Magazine Exposure: Internalization, Self-Objectification, Eating Attitudes, and Body Satisfaction in Male and Female University Students

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1 Magazine Exposure: Internalization, Self-Objectification, Eating Attitudes, and Body Satisfaction in Male and Female University Students MARIAN M. MORRY, University of Manitoba and SANDRA L. STASKA, University of Winnipeg Abstract The relationships among magazine exposure, self-objectification, body shape dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptomatology in men and women were investigated. Women reading beauty magazines and men reading fitness magazines internalized societal ideals (internalization). For women, beauty magazines predicted self-objectification, mediated by internalization. For men, only internalization predicted self-objectification. For men, fitness magazines predicted body shape dissatisfaction, mediated by internalization. For women, only internalization predicted body shape dissatisfaction. Reading magazines also predicted eating problems for men and women, for women this was mediated by internalization. These findings suggest that magazine reading is related to concerns with physical appearance and eating behaviours. Many of the relationships previously found for women are similar for men. A sociocultural model is used to explain these results. R6sum6 Dans la pr6sente 6tude, on a examin6 les relations entre la lecture des revues, l'auto-objectivation, l'insatisfaction face h la forme corporelle et les sympt6mes de troubles alimentaires dans une population compos6e d'hommes et de femmes. Les femmes qui lisent des revues de beaut6 et les hommes qui lisent des revues de conditionnement physique faisaient leurs les id6aux de la soci6t6 (int6riorisation). Dans le cas des femmes, la lecture des revues de beaut6 permettait de pr6dire l'auto-objectivation, et indirectement, l'int6riorisation. Dans le cas des hommes, seule l'int6riorisation permettait de pr6dire l'auto-objectivation. Pour ceux-ci, la lecture de revues de conditionnement physique permettait de pr6dire l'insatisfaction face h la forme corporelle, et indirectement, l'int6riorisation. En revanche, chez les femmes, seule l'int6riorisation permettait de pr6dire l'insatisfaction face h la forme corporelle. La lecture de revues a en outre permis de pr6dire les troubles alimentaires, tant chez les hommes que chez les femmes, et dans le cas de ces derni6res, ce facteur 6tait indirectement pr6dit par l'int6riorisation. Nos conclusions nous portent h croire que la lecture de tels maga- zines est li6e aux inqui6tudes face h l'apparence physique et aux comportements alimentaires. Plusieurs de ces relations, soulev6es ant6rieurement en ce qui a trait aux femmes, s'appliquent dans une certaine mesure aux hommes. On a ensuite recours h un mod61e socioculturel pour expliquer ces r6sultats. "Get a better body (by tonight!)" (Marie Claire, January 2000). "28 days to a knockout body. No-fail weight loss: A new way to meet your goals at last" (Shape, February 1999). "Gain Muscle Lose Pounds" (Exercise & Health, Spring 2000) "Look Great Naked, A New Body in 9 Days" (Men's Health, March 2000) Various theories have been developed to explain the relationship between eating disorders and poor body image. One of the most empirically supported theories is the sociocultural model, which emphasizes social and cultural pressures towards slimness in women (Cusumano & Thompson, 1997; Fallon, Katzman, & Wooley, 1994). The predominant factor in this model is the media's portrayal of the ideal female form as thin (Spitzack, 1990; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994; Waller et al., 1994). As indicated in the opening quotes, women's beauty and fitness magazines emphasize this ideal. Based on this model we propose that there are also social and cultural pressures towards physical fitness in men. This sociocultural norm indicates that the ideal male body should be tall, muscular, and mesomorphic (Waaler-Loland, 1998; see also Davis, Dionne, & Lazarus, 1996; Freedman, 1984; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; McKinley, 1998; Pope, Olivardia, Gruber, & Borowiecki, 1999). As indicated in the opening quotes, men's magazines emphasize the physically fit ideal. The cross-sectional survey reported here examines the interrelationships of magazine reading (fitness and beauty), disordered Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 2001, 33:4,

2 270 Morry and Staska eating behaviours, body image, and self-objectification in males and females. Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, and Thompson (1980) analyzed the heights and weights of women from Playboy Magazines and Miss America Pageant contestants and winners over a 20-year span ( ). Their results indicated that the average weight of these women decreased significantly over time. Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, and Ahrens (1992) included a more recent 10-year span ( ) and found that the weights of the Playboy centrefold models were 13-19% lower than that of normal women. These studies support the sociocultural model's emphasis on the media's portrayal of the ideal female form as being thin (see also Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986). Additional support for this model comes from research by Anderson and DiDomenico (1992) who found that a sample of women's magazines contained approximately 10 times as many items promoting weight loss than a similar sample of men's magazines, the same ratio of women to men with eating disorders (see also Malkin, Wornian, & Chrisler, 1999; Silverstein et al., 1986; Wiseman et al., 1992). Petrie, Austin, Cowley, and Helmcamp (1996) have examined sociocultural expectations for men by analyzing advertising content from two men's fashion magazines from 1960 to Over this time span a relatively stable presentation of an ideal male's body as physically fit was found. One implication of the media focus on thinness in women and physical fitness in men is that these portrayals should lead to dissatisfaction with one's own body and disordered eating behaviours as women and men try to attain these ideals. Exposure to magazine advertisements and television programs has been found to correlate with eating disorder symptomatology in women (Hamilton & Waller, 1993; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Irving, 1990; Roberts & Dorr, 2000; Stice & Shaw, 1994; Stice et al., 1994; Thompson & Heinberg, 1999; Waller, Hamilton, & Shaw, 1992; Waller et al., 1994). Eating disorder symptomatology may be defined as a collection of self-perceived attitudes and behaviours that are characteristic of disordered eating, such as pathological dislike of one's body, the desire to change through weight loss (even though underweight or of healthy weight), and behavioural attempts to do so through restrained eating or purging (Garner & Garfinkel, 1979). A number of studies have also found that exposure to advertisements containing slim models affected women's estimations of their own body size (Myers & Biocca, 1992; Sumner, Waller, Killick, & Elstein, 1993), decreased body satisfaction (Irving, 1990; Richins, 1991; Roberts & Dorr, 2000; Stice & Shaw, 1994; Thompson & Heinberg, 1999), and lowered self-esteem (Irving, 1990). Stice et al. (1994) found a direct link of magazine advertisements on eating disorder symptomatology, as well as mediational linkages for gender-role endorsement (participants tendency to endorse traditional gender roles), ideal body stereotype internalization (repeated exposure to the thin ideal portrayed in the media leads women to internalize this stereotype), and body satisfaction. Although it cannot be concluded that the media acts as an initial antecedent to eating disorders, it is clear that the media may have an effect upon women's body image, particularly if they are already sensitive to their body size (Waller & Shaw, 1994). Previous research with women has also found positive correlations between self-objectification and body shame (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll, Quinn, & Twenge, 1998; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998) and self-objectification and disordered eating (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998). Body shame is the result of experiencing feelings of shame about one's body shape or size (Fredrickson et al., 1998). Objectification theory indicates that women are socialized to treat themselves as objects to be evaluated on the basis of appearance (see Fredrickson et al., 1998 for a review). Self-objectification theory suggests that our culture socializes women to internalize an observer's objective perspective of their own bodies, thereby becoming preoccupied with their own physical appearance (Archer, Iritani, Kimes, & Barrios, 1983; Fredrickson et al., 1998; see McKinley & Hyde, 1996 for a similar proposal). Therefore, self-objectification refers to the fact that individuals think about and value their own bodies from a third-person perspective, focusing on observable body attributes (e.g., body shape) rather than from a first-person perspective, which focuses on nonobservable attributes (e.g., feelings) (Fredrickson et al., 1998). Self-objectification theory hypothesizes that various behaviours will result from an individual taking this third-person perspective. For instance, self-objectification will lead to a form of social consciousness characterized by close monitoring of the body's outward appearance, thereby limiting mental resources that are available for other activities. Fredrickson et al. (1998) found that in women, self-objectification was correlated with increased experiences of body shame (which triggered a desire to escape the gaze of others), feelings of worthlessness and powerlessness, and problem eating behaviours. Self-consciousness or public attention (through mirrors, actual or implied observers, or viewing oneself on video) has also been found to induce restrained eating in women (see Fredrickson et al., 1998 for a review). A number of studies have found that men are also experiencing dissatisfaction with their body shape

3 Magazine Exposure in and 271 (e.g., Abell & Richards, 1996; Emerson & Edwards, 2000; McDonald & Thompson, 1992; Parks & Read, 1997; Prybock, 2000). In addition, body dissatisfaction significantly predicts eating disorders and attempts to gain weight (Prybock, 2000) as well as poor selfesteem and depression (McCreary & Sasse, 2000). To date, the few studies on media exposure in men indicate negative correlations with body perception (Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Lavine, Sweeney, & Wagner, 1999) and self-esteem (Murphy, 1993) and a positive correlation with disordered eating (Harrison & Cantor, 1997). A positive relationship has also been found between self-objectification and body shame in men (Fredrickson et al., 1998). Taken together, the previous studies suggest that while the media image for men is muscular and for women it is thin, media exposure may be related to eating attitudes, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction in both men and women. In addition, Stice et al.'s (1994) findings that the internalization of societal ideals mediated the link between magazine advertisements and eating disorder symptoms suggest that the internalization of societal ideals may also mediate the relationship of media to self-objectification and body dissatisfaction as well. The aim of the present crosssectional survey is to further examine the links between ongoing exposure to fitness and beauty magazines with self-objectification, body satisfaction, and eating behaviours. This study differs from previous research by (1) including men as well as women, (2) examining both fitness and beauty magazine exposure, and (3) examining if the internalization of societal ideals mediates the relationships between magazine exposure and the other variables. Based on the research cited above, five hypotheses were developed. First, for women, reading beauty magazines should correlate with internalization of societal ideals and for men, reading fitness magazines should correlate with internalization of societal ideals. Second, reading magazines (women-beauty, men-fitness) should correlate with self-objectification. These relationships, though, should be mediated by the internalization of societal ideals. Third, reading magazines (women-beauty, men-fitness) should correlate with body shape dissatisfaction. These relationships, though, should again be mediated by the internalization of societal ideals. Fourth, reading magazines (women-beauty, men-fitness) should correlate with eating problems, again mediated by the internalization of societal ideals. Fifth, the relationship between reading magazines (women-beauty, men-fitness) and eating problems should also be mediated by body shape dissatisfaction (e.g., Stice et al., 1994). METHOD Participants The participants were 150 Introductory Psychology students (61 men, 89 women). The average age of male participants was 19.8 years (range: 18-42). The average age of female participants was 18.8 years (range: 18-25). Materials Magazine exposure. The Magazine Exposure Scale (MES) developed for this study was intended to examine participants' exposure to ideal body images presented in the media. Participants were asked to indicate the number of magazines they had looked at during the past month by placing an "X" next to the magazine titles that they had examined. The total number of beauty and fitness magazines read was then summed to provide an index of ongoing exposure. The fitness magazines were selected based on their emphasis on exercise. The fitness magazines included were Fitness, Men's Fitness, Muscle & Fitness, Men's Health, and Shape. The beauty magazines were selected based on their emphasis on clothing and nonexercise-related appearance. The beauty magazines included were YM (Young & Modern), Mademoiselle, Vogue, Cosmopolitan, Seventeen, Glamour, Elle, Vanity Fair, and Self A number of filler magazines were also included: People, Star, Rolling Stone, Reader's Digest, Macleans, Time, Sports Illustrated, National Enquirer, and Newsweek. All magazines chosen are readily available on store shelves. 1,2 Eating disorder symptomatology. The Eating Attitudes Test (EAT; Garner & Garfinkel, 1979; Garner, Olmstead, Boher, & Garfinkel, 1982) is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that measures behaviours, attitudes, and emotions associated with anorexia and bulimia. Participants responded to each item on a 6-point scale scored as 0 (never, rarely, sometimes), 1 (often), 2 (usu- 1 The majority of fitness magazines are targeted at men, but women also report reading them. Similarly, the majority of beauty magazines are targeted at women, but men also report reading them. Although these differences may bias the results to support our hypotheses, these magazines were selected because of their availability on store shelves, and they reflect the natural bias in the availability of beauty and fitness magazines for men and women. 2 Responses to the fitness and magazine exposure questions were skewed: fitness +.97 for men and for women; beauty for men and +.84 for women. This skewness may influence the regression analyses; therefore, additional regressions were conducted with magazine exposure as a dichotomy (exposure or no exposure) with similar results (for women, though, fitness magazines were a significant predictor of EAT scores in both models).

4 272 Morry and Staska ally), and 3 (always). This scale was used to measure restrained or disordered eating. Normal scores tend to be below 40, whereas scores above this indicate the possible presence of an eating disorder. One item was changed for the male participants (Q 23 - "have taken steroids" replaced "have regular menstrual periods"). The Cronbach alphas for the present study were.75 for males and.85 for females. The Cronbach alpha reported by Stice et al. (1994) was.91. Self-objectification. The Self-Objectification Questionnaire (so; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998) assesses concern with appearance. Self-objectification theory predicts that women experience the negative consequences of self-objectification predominantly as a result of whether they feel satisfied or dissatisfied with their bodies. The scale asks participants to rank order 10 body attributes by how important each is to their physical self-concept (0 - least impact on body satisfaction to 9 - greatest impact on body satisfaction) (e.g., What rank do you assign to health? What rank do you assign to weight?). The ranks for physical appearance items and physical competence items are then summed. Finally, the sum of the competence ranks is subtracted from the sum of the appearance ranks. Therefore, scores may range from -25 to +25 with higher numbers indicating a greater emphasis on appearance, interpreted as higher self-objectification (> 0), and lower numbers indicating a greater emphasis on competence-related factors (< 0). Sociocultural attitudes. The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ; Heinberg, Thompson, & Stormer, 1995) consists of 14 statements that assess an individual's recognition and acceptance of societal standards of appearance that have been developed due to media exposure. This questionnaire contains two subscales: Internalization (e.g., Women who appear in TV shows and movies project the type of appearance that I see as my goal; I believe that clothes look better on thin models) and Awareness (e.g., People think that the thinner you are, the better you look in clothes; I wish I looked like a swimsuit model). Participants indicated their recognition/ awareness of societal influence on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). This questionnaire measures whether an individual is susceptible to media influences, which may help determine how the media influences body image. Some questions on this scale were changed for male participants (Q1 - "men" replaced "women"; Q2, Q3, Q7, Qll - "muscular/fit" replaced "thin"; Q13 - "bodybuilder" replaced "swimsuit model"; and Q14 - "Men's Fitness" and "Muscle & Fitness" replaced "Cosmopolitan, Vogue, and Glamour"). Internalization alphas were.78 for males and.85 for females; Awareness alphas were.56 for males and.42 for females. The alphas reported by Heinberg et al. (1995) were.88 for internalization and.71 for awareness. 3,4 Body shape. The Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ; Cooper, Taylor, Cooper, & Fairburn, 1987) measures concerns about the body by assessing feelings of fatness. The scale consists of 34 body-related statements (e.g., Have you ever been afraid that you might become fat or fatter?; Has eating even a small amount of food made you feel fat?). Participants were asked to indicate how they felt about these items over the past month, with a score of i indicating "never" and 6 indicating "always." Scores above 88 indicate greater concern regarding body shape and scores below this indicate little concern regarding body shape. Scores below 70 indicate no concern regarding body shape. Four questions were changed for male participants (Q3 - "stomach" replaced "thighs, hips, or bottom"; Q9 - "muscular men" replaced "thin women"; Q12 - "men" replaced "women"; Q25 - "men are more muscular' replaced "women are thinner"). The Cronbach alphas for the present study were.95 for males and.97 for females. Previous researchers have not provided Cronbach's alphas for this scale. Probe for suspiciousness. A number of open-ended questions were included at the end of the questionnaire asking participants to explain what they thought the research was about and if they thought there was an appropriate way to respond. None of the participants related the magazine exposure scale to the other measures in their questionnaire package. Design and Procedure Participants were tested in same-sex groups of approximately 20 in a classroom setting. They were told that the study was a survey on "University students' attitudes, behaviors, and images of themselves" 3 Six of the eight internalization questions and one of the six awareness items were changed for men. These changes may influence the links between the magazine exposure and internalization components in the analyses. These changes, though, should not influence the links between magazine exposure and eating attitudes, body shape, or self-objectification. 4 The low Cronbach's alphas for the Awareness scale suggests that Heinberg et al.'s (1995) questions may not be measuring awareness as a single construct. A factor analysis with varimax rotation indicated two factors, each with three questions (identical results occur when the analysis is conducted for males only and females only). Each factor, though, still had low alphas.

5 Magazine Exposure in and 273 TABLE 1 Gender Differences: Variable Means, Standard Deviations, and MANOVA Results Variable F p Range Mean SD Range Mean SD (1, 128) Fitness Magazines Beauty Magazines Body Shape Questionnaire Self-Objectification Eating Behaviours Internalization Awareness Note: Multivariate F (7, 122) 15.13, p <.001. TABLE 2 Correlation Matrix of All Variables with Cronbach's Alpha on the Diagonal Fitness Beauty BSQ SO EAT Internal Aware Fitness --.28* Beauty *.24*.27** -.05 BSQ.97.41"**.59***.59***.00 SO --.40***.50***.10 EAT.60.47*** -.02 Internal Aware.42 Fitness *.17.30*.38**.12 Beauty BSQ ***.12 SO **.31" EAT Internal.78.39"* Aware.56 Notes. Fitness and Beauty refer to types of magazines being read. BSQ refers to Body Shape Questionnaire, so to the Self-objectification questionnaire, and EAT to the Eating Attitudes Test. Internal and Aware refer to the internalization and awareness subscales of the SATAQ. * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.005;... p <.001. and would involve completing a number of scales. A questionnaire packet containing the MES, SATAQ, BSQ, SO, and EAT scales was given to each participant. After completing these questionnaires, participants completed the probe for suspiciousness. They then received a written debriefing. RESULTS Preliminary Analyses To test for gender differences on each of the variables a MANOVA was conducted (see Table 1). The MANOVA indicated that women read fewer fitness and more beauty magazines than men. For women, there was a positive correlation between the reading of beauty and fitness magazines, r (89) -.28, p <.01, but for men this correlation was nonsignificant r (61) -.16, p <.20. Women also reported more dissatisfaction with their body and more eating problems than men. Thirtyeight percent of female participants, compared to 12% of male participants, scored over 88 on the Body Shape Questionnaire, indicating a concern with their body image. In addition, 10% of women and 5% of men scored over 40 on the Eating Attitudes Test, indicating the possible presence of an eating disorder. Although there was no significant gender difference in selfobjectification and the means were below zero, 51% of women and 36% of men scored over zero on this ques- tionnaire, indicating a large emphasis on appearance. There were no differences between men and women in their awareness or internalization of societal ideals. To examine whether the MES, SO, EAT, BSQ, Internalization, and Awareness items are distinct con- structs, Pearson correlations among these variables were conducted. Table 2 includes the correlations and

6 274 Morry and Staska TABLE 3 Internalization Predicted by Magazine Exposure and Awareness, by Gender Variable B SE B [3 R 2 zxr 2 Model i Predictors Fitness Beauty ** Model 2 Predictors Fitness Beauty ** Awareness Model i Predictors Fitness *** Beauty Model 2 Predictors Fitness *** Beauty Awareness *** * "* *** Notes. zxr 2 tests were calculated with df 2, 58 (Model 1) and 3, 57 (Model 2) for males and df 2, 84 (Model 1) and 3, 83 (Model 2) for females. * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p < the Cronbach's alphas for each measure. If these scales are measuring separate constructs, it would be expected that the Cronbach's alphas should be larger than the correlations. In all but one instance, the correlation for women between eating attitudes (EAT) and body shape (BSQ), this is the case. Test of Hypotheses Because of the changes to the EAT, SATAQ, and BSQ scales for male participants, these scales may no longer measure identical constructs for our male and female participants. Therefore separate regression analyses were conducted by gender. To test for full mediation in our hypotheses, three conditions must be met (Baron & Kenny, 1986). First, variations in levels of the predictor variable (fitness and/or beauty magazines) must significantly account for variations in the presumed mediator (internalization and/or awareness). Second, variations in the mediator must significantly account for variations in the criterion variables (EAT, SO, or BSQ). Finally, when these relationships are controlled for, a previously significant relationship between the predictor and criterion variables must now be nonsignificant. Step 1. Separate regressions were conducted on the Internalization and Awareness variables with the fitness and beauty variables as predictors. As predicted in hypothesis one, reading magazines (women-beauty, men-fitness) was related to internalization of societal TABLE 4 Self-objectification, Eating Behaviors, and Body Shape Predicted by Internalization and Awareness, by Gender Variable B SE B [3 R 2 Ae 2 Self-Objectification ** Internalization *** Awareness *** Internalization a Awareness Eating Attitudes Test *** Internalization **** Awareness Internalization Awareness Body Shape Questionnaire **** Internalization **** Awareness *** Internalization **** Awareness *** 2 Notes: Aa tests were calculated with df = 2, 58 for males and 2, 84 for females. a p =.07;* p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p < ideals, which supported the first mediation step (see Table 3). Although not hypothesized, awareness of societal ideals could be related to internalization; therefore an additional regression was conducted (Model 2). Awareness of societal ideals was only a significant predictor for male participants. Neither the fitness nor the beauty variables were significant predictors of the Awareness variable for either women R , F(2, 85) --.16, or men, a , F(2, 58) Step 2. To test if the presumed mediator (internalization) predicts the criterion variables (so, EAT, or BSQ), three separate regressions were conducted (see Table 4). For women, Internalization was a significant predictor of their so, EAT, and BSQ scores. For men, Internalization was a significant predictor of their so and BSQ scores but not their EAT scores. Except for the male EAT results, support was found for the second mediation step. Step 3. The last mediation component is a two-stage analysis. First, the predictor variable (fitness and beauty) must be significantly related to the criterion variable. Second, when the proposed mediator is included this initial significant relationship must now be nonsignificant. For each hypothesis, these analyses will be referred to as Model i and Model 2, respectively.

7 Magazine Exposure in and 275 TABLE 5 Self-objectification Predicted by Magazine Exposure and Internalization, by Gender Variable B SE B ~3 R 2 AR 2 Model 1 Predictors a Fitness Beauty * Model2 Predictors "*** Fitness Beauty Internalization **** Model i Predictors Fitness Beauty Model2 Predictors " Fitness Beauty Internalization * Note. ka 2 tests were calculated with df 2, 49 (Model 1) and 3, 48 (Model 2) for males and df 2, 73 (Model 1) and 3, 72 (Model 2) for females. * p <.05; **p <.01; *** p <.005;... p <.001. TABLE 6 Body Shape Questionnaire Predicted by Magazine Exposure and Internalization, by Gender Variable B SE B ~3 R 2 zxr 2 Model i Predictors Fitness Beauty Model2 Predictors "*** Fitness Beauty Internalization **** Model i Predictors Fitness * Beauty Model2 Predictors "** Fitness Beauty Internalization *** Notes. ka 2 tests were calculated with df 2, 57 (Model 1) and 3, 56 (Model 2) for males and df 2, 80 (Model 1) and 3, 79 (Model 2) for females. * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.005;... p <.001. Hypothesis two was that magazine reading should predict self-objectification but these relationships should be mediated by the internalization of societal ideals (see Table 5). As predicted, for women only beauty magazines were a significant predictor of selfobjectification in Model 1. The more women selfreported reading beauty magazines, the more selfobjectification they reported. When internalization was included in Model 2, beauty magazines were no longer a significant predictor, a pattern that supports our hypothesis. For men, the fitness magazines were not a significant predictor of self-objectification in Model 1. In Model 2, though, internalization was a significant predictor of self-objectification; therefore, although reading fitness magazines is not related to self-objectification for men, the internalization of societal ideals is related to self-objectification. Hypothesis three indicates that magazine reading should correlate with body shape dissatisfaction, again mediated by the internalization of societal ideals (see Table 6). For women, the beauty magazines were not a significant predictor of BSQ in Model 1. Model 2, though, indicated that internalization was a significant predictor of body shape dissatisfaction; therefore, even though reading magazines is not related to body shape dissatisfaction in women, the internalization of societal ideals is important. For men, the fitness magazines were a significant predictor of BSQ in Model 1. The more men self-reported reading fitness magazines, the more dissatisfied they were with their body TABLE 7 Eating Attitudes Predicted by Magazine Exposure and Internalization, by Gender Variable B SE B ~3 R 2 AR 2 Model i Predictors " Fitness Beauty * Model 2 Predictors **** Fitness Beauty Internalization **** Model i Predictors a Fitness * Beauty Model 2 Predictors Fitness a Beauty Internalization Note. ka 2 tests were calculated with df 2, 58 (Model 1) and 3, 57 (Model 2) for males and df 2, 84 (Model 1) and 3, 83 (Model 2) for females. a p.06; * p <.05; ** p <.01; *** p <.005;... p <.001. shape. In Model 2, Internalization was a significant predictor of BSQ and the fitness magazines were no longer significant, a pattern that supports our mediation hypothesis. Hypothesis four indicates that reading magazines should predict eating problems, again mediated by the

8 276 Morry and Staska Fitness B~uty?.~... Beauty Awareness ~.~iternalizaion... -,.. ]]"-alk Self_objectificlon... """"... ""':~" EAT ~-~BSQ Awareness Fitness ~.. ~ Internalization... %s'q Figure 1. Relationships among the variables for male and female participants. Notes. Solid lines ( ) indicate a direct relationship between variables; dashed lines (... ) indicate a direct relationship that is mediated by internalization. BSQ refers to Body Shape Questionnaire. EAT refers to Eating Attitudes Test. Fitness and beauty refer to types of magazines being read. internalization of societal ideals (see Table 7). For women, only beauty magazines were a significant predictor of EAT scores in Model 1. The more women report reading beauty magazines, the more they also report eating problems. When internalization was included in Model 2, beauty magazines were no longer a significant predictor, a pattern that supports our hypothesis. For men, only the fitness magazines were a significant predictor of EAT scores in Model 1. The more men report reading fitness magazines, the more they also report eating problems. In Model 2, fitness magazines were still a significant predictor of EAT scores and internalization was nonsignificant, a pattern that does not support our mediation hypothesis. Hypothesis five indicates that reading magazines should predict eating problems, but this relationship should be mediated by body shape dissatisfaction. To test this hypothesis it must first be shown that variations in the predictor variable (type of magazine) must significantly account for variations in the presumed mediator (BSQ). As indicated in Table 6, neither the fitness nor the beauty magazines had a significant relationship with BSQ scores for females. For males, only the fitness magazines had a significant relationship with their BSQ scores. To test the second step of media- tion, it must be shown that variations in the mediator (BSQ) significantly account for variations in the criterion variable (EAT). For women, this relationship was significant, t , p <.001, B -.18, s~ B -.03, [3 -.56, but for men the relationship was nonsignificant, t , p >.05, B -.13, s~ B -.07, [ Taken together, these results do not support our fifth hypothesis. They do indicate, though, that for women there is an additional relationship between body shape dissatisfaction and eating problems. Figure 1 displays the relationships among variables found in these regression analyses. Arrows with solid lines are direct relationships between variables that were significant in the regression analyses. Arrows with broken lines indicate relationships that were significant in the initial analyses (Model 1) but whose relationship was mediated by internalization (Model 2).2 DISCUSSION Based on the results of this study, it is evident that magazine exposure is associated with the internalization of the ideal form as thin for women and physically fit for men. The results indicate that participants who read fitness (men) or beauty (women) magazines have a greater concern about their physical appearance and exhibit more disordered eating behaviours than those who do not. For men, reading fitness magazines is related to the internalization of societal ideals about appearance and to eating problems. In addition, reading fitness magazines is related to problems associated with body shape dissatisfaction, which is mediated by the internalization of societal ideals. Finally, although fitness magazines have no direct link to selfobjectification, internalization of societal ideals is related to males' self-objectification. To date, there has been very little research on the influence of media exposure on men (Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Lavine et al., 1999; Murphy, 1993). Our study indicates that men are experiencing similar problems as women. For women, reading beauty magazines is related to the internalization of societal ideals, self-objectification, and eating problems. However, the relations among beauty magazines, self-objectification, and eating problems are mediated by the internalization of societal ideals. Internalization of societal ideals is also related to problems with body shape dissatisfaction, 5 Fredrickson et al. (1998) found that self-objectification was correlated with body shame and problem eating behaviours in women. Although not hypothesized, we conducted additional regressions including so as a predictor after the magazine and Internalization variables, so was not a significant predictor for either the BSQ or EAT variables (all ts < 1.3, ps >.20).

9 Magazine Exposure in and 277 and body shape dissatisfaction was related to eating problems. Our results for women parallel those of previous researchers who found that exposure to advertisements or television shows with slim models is associated with women's estimations of their own body size (Myers & Biocca, 1992; Sumner et al., 1993), their body dissatisfaction (Irving, 1990; Richins, 1991; Roberts & Dorr, 2000; Stice & Shaw, 1994), and eating disorder symptomatology (Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Roberts & Dorr, 2000; Stice et at., 1994; Waller et at., 1992). Stice et al. (1994) also found that the internalization of societal ideals and body satisfaction mediated the effects of magazine advertisements on eating disorder symptomatology. We extended this research by examining all of these variables as well as self-objectification within one study. Self-objectification theory suggests that our culture socializes women to internalize an observer's objective perspective of their bodies. Although self-objectification theory was initially proposed for the media's influence on women, this theory should also apply to the media's influence on men. That is, the media socializes women to idealize thinness and socializes men to idealize physical fitness. Our study indicates that for both male and female participants, the internalization of societal ideals was associated with selfobjectification. Originally, self-objectification theory indicated that women were socialized to be conscious of how others observe their bodies, whereas men were not socialized in this way. If looking only at the number of beauty magazines aimed towards women and men, it can be readily assumed that this socialization only occurs for women. However, the societal ideal for men involves physical fitness, and therefore an examination must also be made of the number of fitness magazines aimed towards women and men. The preponderance of fitness magazines are aimed at men, and therefore men may also be socialized to be conscious of how others observe their bodies. Limitations Although we have presented our results as indicating that fitness and beauty magazines influence internalization and, subsequently, body dissatisfaction, selfobjectification, and eating attitudes, it is possible the causal direction goes in the opposite direction. That is, dissatisfaction with one's body could lead to eating problems and influence the types of magazines an individual reads. Similarly, although we argue that the reading materials lead to self-objectification and internatization, it is possible that the causal direction goes in the opposite direction. Other parts of our model, though, seem less likely to flow in the opposite direction. For example, we argue that internalization of societal ideals leads to restrained eating and body dissatisfaction. It seems unlikely that the reverse would be true, that eating problems or body dissatisfaction would lead to the internalization of societal ideals. There are also limitations to our magazine exposure measure. First, we did not ask participants how many of each magazine they had read during the month, only whether or not they had read each magazine. Even with this crude measure, though, we did find that the type of magazine being read (beauty or fitness) predicted a number of relationships for both men and women. Second, an examination of our list indicates that the numbers of male and female beauty and fitness magazines are not balanced. That is, most beauty magazines targeted female readers and most fitness magazines targeted male readers. Therefore, the types of magazines that were selected limit the results of this study. Future research should be more specific in measuring both the type and number of magazines participants are asked about. Finally, our magazine exposure measure was presented before the other scales. Although our probe for suspiciousness indicated no one related these exposure questions to the other scales, it is possible there were priming effects of which participants were unaware. Finally, awareness of societal ideals was unimportant for males and females. One explanation is that the Awareness scale had low internal consistency in our study. With a different measure, one that taps into this construct better, awareness may be more important. Implications Our results suggest that sociocultural ideals of slimness in women and physical fitness in men are being internalized and are related to body satisfaction and eating behaviours. Future research in this area should focus on examining media exposure using other sample populations such as individuals with clinical eating problems, or body builders. Finally, a lack of research exists in relation to men and media influences. Although Petrie et al.'s (1996) examination of men's fashion magazines indicates that there have been no changes in the ideal male body, there has been no similar examination of men's fitness magazines. Our results suggest that men are internalizing the ideals from fitness magazines not fashion magazines. In addition, there are a number of similarities in the relationships between magazine exposure (males-fitness, females-beauty), body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and eating attitudes in men and women. Similar to the research conducted on women, future research with men should examine the relationships of

10 278 Morry and Staska both television programming and advertisements to male's body satisfaction, eating behaviours, selfesteem, and body-size estimates. Future research should also examine the relationships between media and exercising and body image, eating behaviours, and self-objectification. The current literature on exercising, body image, and eating behaviours (e.g., McDonald & Thompson, 1992; Parks & Read, 1997) does not examine the effects of the media. Similarly, the literature reviewed in this paper on media influences did not examine whether individuals exercised and/or how often they did so. Future research should include both the type and amount of exercise participants engage in, as this may moderate the relationship between media exposure and the variables examined. In conclusion, the present study indicates that media exposure to the ideal form, thin for women and physically fit for men, is being internalized. For both male and female participants this exposure is related to problematic eating behaviours, self-objectification, and body shame. Although these problems occur in women more than men, men are experiencing similar problems. Marian Morry, Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, and Sandra L. Staska, Department of Psychology, University of Winnipeg. This research was conducted as part of the second author's Honours Thesis at the University of Winnipeg. We thal-tk Manly Spigelman for his comments while designing the study. We also thank Gerry Sande, Jacquie Vorauer, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions on this article. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Marian M. Morry, who is now at the University of Manitoba, Psychology Department, P401 Duff Roblin, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T-2N2, Canada ( References Abell, S., & Richards, M.H. (1996). The relationship between body shape satisfaction and self-esteem: An investigation of gender and class differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, Anderson, A.E., & DiDomenico, L. (1992). Diet vs. shape content of popular male and female magazines: A dose response relatiol~ship to the incidence of eating disorders? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, Archer, D., Iritani, B., Kimes, D., & Barrios, M. (1983). Faceism: Five studies of sex differences in facial prominence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, Cooper, P.J., Taylor, M.J., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C.G. (1987). The development and validation of the body shape questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 6, Cusumano, D.L., & Thompson, J.K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles, 37, Davis, C., Dionne, M., & Lazarus, L. (1996). Gender-role orientation and body image in women and men: The moderating role of neuroticism. Sex Roles, 35, Emerson, E., & Edwards, J. (2000). Gender differences in body image attitudes: Taking a component and feminist approach. Poster presented at the 72nd annual convention of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, ~L. Exercise and Health: The Complete Fitness Guide for Men. (Spring 2000). Cover. Vol. 15. Fallon, P., Katzman, M.A., & Wooley, S.C. (1994). Feminist perspectives on eating disorders. New York: Guilford Press. Fredrickson, B.L., Roberts, T., Noll, S.M., Quinn, D.M., & Twenge, J.M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, Freedman, R.T. (1984). Reflections on beauty as it relates to health in adolescent females. Women and Health, 9, Garner, D.M., & Garfinkel, P.E. (1979). The eating attitudes test: An index of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. Psychological Medicine, 9, Garner, D.M., Garfinkel, RE., Schwartz, D., & Thompson, M. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 47, Garner, D.M., Olmstead, M.P., Bohr, Y., & Garfinkel, P.E. (1982). The eating attitudes test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychological Medicine, 12, Hamilton, K., & Waller, G. (1993). Media influences on body estimation in anorexia and bulimia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relatiol~ship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, Heinberg, L.J., Thompson, J.K., & Stormer, S. (1995). Development and validation of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17, Irving, L. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of

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