Brief Report. Is sport still a masculine domain? A psychological glance

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1 Brief Report Int. J. Sport Psychol., 2011; 42: 1-00 Is sport still a masculine domain? A psychological glance CORENTIN CLÉMENT-GUILLOTIN* **, AÏNA CHALABAEV ***, PAUL FONTAYNE **** (*)University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis, LAMHES, France (**)University of Paris-Sud 11, CIAMS (RIME), France (***)Paris-Ouest University Nanterre La Défense, CeRSM, France (****)Paris-Ouest University Nanterre La Défense, CeRSM, France This study investigated whether sport is still nowadays considered as a masculine domain and whether the association between sport and masculinity may be modulated by individuals gender-role orientation. One hundred students performed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) implementing sport and education words with masculine versus feminine attributes. Next, they reported their gender-role orientation and explicit gender attitudes about sport and education. Participants implicitly and explicitly associated sport with masculinity. Gender-role orientation did not moderate this association contrary to participants sex. Men showed stronger sport-masculinity automatic association than women. Specifically, women were more sensitive to the order of IAT blocks than men. This study suggests that the masculine connotation of sport, while still being present, may begin to be challenged in females cognitive network. Interpretations of the results in light of the increase in female sport participation are discussed. KEY WORDS: Explicit attitudes,gender, Masculinity, Implicit Association Test, Sport. Numerous studies in sport psychology have examined gender stereotypes associated with sports in order to understand how they may explain the gender differences observed in sport participation. These studies have notably shown that stereotypes may affect individuals through internalization during the socialization process, leading in turn to differences in motivation and Correspondence to: Corentin Clément-Guillotin, UFR STAPS, Laboratoire LAMHES, Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, 261 route de Grenoble, Nice cedex 3, France. E- mail: corentin.clementguillotin@yahoo.fr; phone: +33 (0) or Paul Fontayne, UFR STAPS, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, Bât S, 200 avenue de la République, Nanterre, France; Phone: 33 (0) ; paul.fontayne@u-paris10.fr 1

2 sport participation between males and females (see Fredricks & Eccles, 2005 for a review). More particularly, concerning the content of these stereotypes, research has consistently found that some sports are considered as masculine such as rugby or boxing, whereas other sports are perceived as feminine such as ice skating or gymnastics (e.g., Hardin & Greer, 2009; Riemer & Visio, 2003; Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). But beyond the stereotypes that are associated with particular sports, one may wonder whether sport in general is also sex-typed. Gender differences have been observed depending on the type of sport (e.g., females prefer sports sex-typed as feminine while males prefer sports sex-typed as masculine, Hill & Hannon, 2008), but these gender differences also exist at a more general level. For example, female sports participation as a whole is lower than that of males (e.g., Van Tuyckom, Scheerder, & Bracke, 2010). One possible explanation of these gender differences is to consider that sport in general is perceived as a masculine domain. Past research on the sex-typing of sport in general has been scarce in sport psychology, as studies mainly examined the gender stereotypes associated with particular sports. Eccles and colleagues (see Fredricks & Eccles, 2005, for a review) confirmed that people perceive sport as more appropriate for males than for females. However, these data were collected in the eighties. In the past thirty years, actions have been conducted by politics (e.g., Title IX) in order to reduce the gender discrepancies observed in sport. Moreover, female sport participation has highly increased along with the media coverage of female athletes (Hardin & Greer, 2009; Riemer & Visio, 2003). It is thus possible that the sex-typing of sports has changed since the eighties. Hardin and Greer (2009, p. 220) pointed out that attitudes seem to have slightly shifted into acceptance of some sports as neither entirely masculine or feminine. At a more general level, sport may not be considered as a traditional masculine domain anymore. The goal of this research was thus to examine whether sport in general is still perceived as a masculine domain. This question was investigated using implicit techniques. Indeed, nowadays there is a social discourse which decries social inequalities (e.g., Stromquist, 2004). Explicitly considering that sport is more appropriate for males than for females may thus be socially undesirable. For example, a recent study using explicit measures showed that participants did not consider sport as a masculine domain (Bois, Sarrazin, Brustad, Trouilloud, & Cury, 2002). This finding could be due either to a recent evolution of the sextyping of sport or to social desirability effects. In order to rule out this latter hypothesis, the current study utilized implicit measures in addition to explicit ones to assess the relationship between sport and masculinity. Specifically, we used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & 2

3 Schwartz, 1998) to examine the automatic association between sport and masculinity. The IAT measures the relative speed at which people make automatic associations between concepts (e.g., flowers, insects) and attributes (e.g., good, bad), capturing mental content that people are unwilling or unable to report. The quicker a person is to pair a concept and an attribute together, the stronger the implicit association between them. This task has been used in gender research opposing, for instance, Science and Liberal Arts or Career and Family (e.g., Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2005, Study 2). Although the IAT has been extensively utilized in psychology research, to our knowledge it has never been used in the sport context. Because categories in the IAT are constructed as contrasting pairs, the concept opposed to sport we chose was education. This concept was chosen for two reasons. First, it has been demonstrated that athletes tend to be viewed as less academically qualified than nonathletes (Baucom & Lantz, 2001). Second, education is likely to be linked with femininity as many studies reported that teaching is considered as a predominantly feminine occupation (e.g., Cognard-Black, 2004). Thus, in the present study both sport-masculinity and education-femininity associations were considered as compatible, whereas sport-femininity and education-masculinity were considered as incompatible. Consequently, if participants are faster to answer on the presumed compatible sessions as compared to the incompatible sessions, this would show that sport is still considered as a masculine domain. A second goal of this study was to examine individual differences in the strength of these relationships. According to Bem s (1981) gender schema theory, sex-typed individuals have a greater readiness than non-sex typed individuals to engage in gender-schematic information processing. We tested whether sex-typed individuals would be more likely to possess the presumed automatic associations relative to androgynous, undifferentiated, and crosssex-typed individuals. Finally, we assessed explicit associations that participants made between sport/education domains and gender. Explicit measures are often tainted by social desirability biases and self-presentational concerns and, thus, can easily be distorted or attuned by participants (Greenwald et al., 1998). For instance, Riemer and Visio (2003) found that participants gave more egalitarian responses to a questionnaire about sex-typing of different sports, while more covert measures still reflected traditional stereotypes. Concerning the overall construct of sport, results could be similar. Accordingly, although on average the explicit gender connotations should be in the presumed directions (i.e., sport explicitly associated with masculinity and education with femininity), we predicted that the self-reported attitudes would differ from associations found with the IAT. 3

4 Method PARTICIPANTS One hundred students (48 men, M age = years, SD = 4.10 years; 52 women, M age = years, SD = 3.09 years) at Paris-Sud 11 University were recruited on campus and volunteered to participate in the study. The majority of participants was physically active: 20% practiced physical activity only in their courses, 28% practiced in university associations, 42% practiced in sport clubs (86% regularly participated in local and regional competitions and 14% in national competitions), and 10% did not report any physical activity. Participants completed individually all dependent measures. MATERIALS Questionnaire. The French short version of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI; Gana, 1995) was used to measure the degree of gender-schematic processing in individuals. Participants completed the 18 items from this version and indicated on a 7-point scale how well each attribute describes himself or herself. Each participant received a masculinity score (a =.83) and a femininity score (a =.86) based on his or her ratings. In accordance with Bem s (1981) methodology, participants who scored above the median on the sex-congruent scale and below the median on the sex-incongruent scale were designated as sex-typed (13 women, 12 men), whereas those who showed the reverse pattern were cross-sex-typed (9 women, 9 men). Those who scored above the median on both scales were defined as androgynous (20 women, 11 men). Those who scored below the median on both scales were defined as undifferentiated (10 women, 16 men). The median was 5.22 for the femininity scale and 4.78 for the masculinity scale. The Implicit Association Test. The IAT was created using eight stimuli in each category. The education and sport words were selected via pilot testing. Fifty-three undergraduate pretest participants rated an original pool of education and sport-related words on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly linked to sport, 4 = neither sport-linked nor education-linked, 7 = strongly linked to education). The eight words in each category with the most extreme evaluation were kept (M sport words = 1.48, SD sport words = 0.28, and M education words = 6.16, SD eduation words = 0.30) and words nature and gender were controlled. The eight stimulus words classified in the Sport category were: team, stadium, changing room, competition, match, sweat, stopwatch, sneakers 1 ; the eight stimulus words for the Education category were: mark, class, report card, book, teaching, lesson, desk, and school. We removed the competitive masculine item from the short version of the BSRI (Gana, 1995), because of its semantic proximity with competition picked in the Sport category as it was recommended. We then removed eager to soothe hurt feelings from the feminine items because of its length, compared to the other adjectives. 1 While we examined sport as a global category, according to our pre-test study, it appears that its competitive connotation is highly accessible with regard to the sport words retained. 4

5 The IAT was administered on a computer. It consisted of seven stages of word categorization trials, with 20 trials for stages 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6, and 40 trials for stages 4 and 7. In stage 1, participants classified words presented individually on the computer screen as belonging to one of two categories, sport or education. If the word presented in the middle of the screen (e.g., school ) belonged to the category shown on the right of the screen (i.e., education ), the participant responded by pressing the i key. If the word flashed in the middle of the screen (e.g., team ) belonged to the category shown on the left of the screen (i.e., sport ), then the participant responded by pressing the e key. In stage 2, a second pair of concepts was introduced. The participants again categorized words shown in the middle of the screen (e.g., affectionate, dominant ) according to whether they belonged to the category shown on the right (i.e., feminine ) or the left (i.e., masculine ). In stages 3 and 4 (data-collection blocks), the categories from the first two stages were superimposed. The i key was used to respond to words that referred to education or feminine, while the e key was used for words that referred to sport or masculine. In stage 5, participants categorized words from the first stage but used the opposite keys to respond. Finally, in stages 6 and 7 (data-collection blocks), the categories were again superimposed, but the key assignments for one pair were reversed from their position in the third stage. The blocks were counterbalanced between subjects, with stages 1, 3, and 4 switched with stages 5, 6, and 7, respectively. Each stimulus item was displayed until its correct response was made. The next stimulus item then followed after a 250 ms intertrial interval. The computer recorded elapsed time between the start of the presentation of each stimulus item and occurrence of the correct keyboard response PROCEDURE Upon arrival at the laboratory, participants were led to an individual room and were informed that the experiment was computer-administered. First, they performed the IAT and were instructed to complete each trial as quickly and accurately as possible. Then, they completed the BSRI. Afterward, participants were asked to indicate how they perceived sport and education domains on a 7-point scale (1 = very feminine, 4 = feminine as well as masculine, 7 = very masculine). It served as measures of explicit gender attitudes concerning domains. At the end of the experimental session, demographic information such as sex and age was collected. Finally, the participants were thoroughly debriefed about the nature of the study and thanked for their participation. Results MANIPULATION CHECK According to procedures recommended by Greenwald, Nosek, and Banaji (2003), we deleted trials greater than 10,000 ms (0.025%). All participants were included in the final sample because none had more than 10% of trials with latency less than 300 ms. 5

6 Before any analyses we checked the validity of contexts and tool chosen for this experiment. First, we needed to check whether we were right about the presumed compatible and incompatible associations and whether the chosen contexts were indeed globally gendered in the presumed direction. The approach which consists of decomposing the IAT into two separate measures of association strength has been criticized (Nosek et al., 2005). Here, we just used subsets of response latencies to each target category in order to confirm internal validity of the two chosen contexts, but not as an index for absolute attitudes. If sport is strongly associated with masculinity, the sorting task should be easier when sport and masculinity concepts share a response than when sport and femininity concepts share a response. Similarly, it should be easier when education and femininity concepts share a response than when education and masculinity share one. Data from response latencies revealed that participants were faster when sport and masculinity were the two response-sharing concepts (M = , SD = ) than when sport and femininity were the two response-sharing concepts (M = , SD = ), t(99) = 5.84, p <.0001, d = Similarly, participants were faster when education and feminine words shared the same response key (M = , SD = ) than when education and masculine words shared the same one (M = , SD = ), t(99) = 9.50, p <.0001, d = The number of errors made in the IAT also indicated that the task was easier when sport and masculinity were the two response-sharing concepts (M = 1.87, SD = 1.81) than when sport and femininity were the two response-sharing concepts (M = 2.63, SD = 2.37), t(99) = 3.25, p <.01, d = Similarly, participants made more errors when education and masculine words shared the same response key (M = 2.33, SD = 1.87) than when education and feminine words shared the same response key (M = 1.82, SD = 1.77), t(99) = 2.22, p <.05, d = Then, the new scoring algorithm was used to compute IAT scores (Greenwald et al., 2003), in which the standard deviations within conditions were applied to calculate the D scores. Higher D scores reflect more implicit association by showing greater facilitation when associating sport with masculine words and education with feminine words. Participants showed a mean D score in the expected direction (M = 0.32, SD = 0.35). The D score being an aggregated measure of both associations, explicit attitude scores about education were reversed (M education = 4.21, SD = 0.52 and M sport = 4.75, SD = 0.67) and the mean of explicit gender attitudes about both sport and education was calculated for each subject (see Table I). The higher the scores were, the more they reflected a traditional explicit association between contexts and gender. Participants mean was 4.48 (SD = 0.44). We expected that 6

7 TABLE I Mean D Scores, Mean Explicit Gender Attitude Scores, And Standard Deviations (In Parentheses) By The Four Bem Sex-Role Inventory (Bsri) Groups. Sex-typed Undifferentiated Androgynous Cross-sex-typed D SCORES Women (0.30) (0.43) (0.33) (0.31) Men (0.32) (0.34) (0.24) (0.45) Total sample EXPLICIT ATTITUDES Women (0.54) (0.37) (0.45) (0.22) Men (0.51) (0.46) (0.51) (0.33) Total sample (0.52) (0.42) (0.48) (0.30) implicit and explicit gender associations should be in the same presumed direction, but they should not correlate because self-reported gender attitudes can easily be distorted or attuned by participants. Results confirmed that the D score did not correlate with the explicit gender attitude score (r =.15, p =.13). OVERALL IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT EFFECTS The mean D score was contrasted against a value of zero (0 = implicit indifference or no difference in the association strengths between response blocks) to assess the presence of automatic associations between concepts in participants in general, using an independent one-sample t-test. It reliably confirmed that overall participants implicitly associated sport with masculinity and education with femininity, t(99) = 9.18, p <.0001, d = Using the same statistical procedure, the mean explicit gender attitude score was contrasted against the midpoint of the scale (i.e., 4). On average, participants explicitly linked sport with masculinity and education with femininity, t(99) = 10.83, p <.0001, d = INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES The D scores were entered into a Blocks Order (compatible session first, incompatible session first) Participant Sex BSRI group (sex-typed, androgynous, undifferentiated, or cross-sex-typed) analysis of variance (ANOVA). It revealed a significant main effect of participants sex, F(1, 84) 7

8 = 8.47, p <.01, h 2 =.09, indicating that males showed a higher IAT-effect (M = 0.42, SD = 0.34) than females (M = 0.23, SD = 0.33). While the sex-typed group showed the highest D score in the descriptive data, contrary to predictions, the main effect for BSRI groups (M Sex-typed = 0.39, SD Sex-typed = 0.36, n = 25 ; M Undifferentiated = 0.31, SD Undifferentiated = 0.37, n = 26 ; M Androgynous = 0.30, SD Androgynous = 0.30, n = 31 ; M Cross-sex-typed = 0.28, SD Cross-sex-typed = 0.38, n = 18) was not significant, F(3, 84) =.87, p =.46. This analysis also yielded two nearsignificant trends. A near-significant main effect of blocks order indicated that participants who began with the compatible session tended to have a higher IAT-effect (M = 0.38, SD = 0.28) than those who began with the incompatible session (M = 0.25, SD = 0.40), F(1, 84) = 3.14, p =.080, h 2 =.04. And more interestingly, this effect was qualified by a Blocks Order Participant Sex interaction, F(1, 84) = 3.62, p =.061, h 2 =.04. It showed that the IAT-effect of males (M = 0.42, SD = 0.29) was not significantly different from that of females (M = 0.35, SD = 0.26) when both began with the compatible session, whereas they differed when participants began with the incompatible session (M males = 0.42, SD = 0.40 and M females = 0.10, SD = 0.35). Furthermore, the D scores of males were not significantly different between order conditions contrary to the D scores of females. Thus, it appeared that females were much more sensitive to the order manipulation. The explicit gender attitude scores were entered into a Participant Sex BSRI group ANOVA. The main effects of BSRI group (see Table 1) and Participant Sex were not statistically significant (respectively, F(3, 92) < 1, and F(1, 92) < 1) as well as the interaction Participant Sex BSRI group, F(3, 92) = 1.58, p =.20. Discussion The goals of this study were to test whether sport in general is still today perceived as a masculine domain and to examine the moderation of this link by gender-role orientation, using implicit and explicit measures. Results showed that the relationship between masculinity and sport followed an implicit route. On average, participants automatically and largely linked sport with masculinity. Although this association was also found on an explicit level, it was not linked to the implicit association. Previous research emphasized that desirability biases and self-presentational concerns may more easily deform explicit measures contrary to implicit ones and may thus explain this absence of correlation (e.g., Greenwald et al., 1998; Riemer & Visio, 2003). Moreover, gender-role orientation did not influence the occur- 8

9 rence of this association, suggesting that the sex-typing of sport as a masculine construct is shared by a majority of people in a western culture and anchored in their cognitive network. Nevertheless and interestingly, males showed stronger automatic sportmasculinity association than females. Indeed, females were sensitive to the order of IAT blocks whereas males were not. When females began with incongruent associations, they showed less facility on congruent associations. This effect of compatibility has been frequently reported for both sexes in IAT research (e.g., Greenwald et al., 1998, 2003, Nosek et al. 2005). Here, IAT effects tended to be more pronounced if the compatible step preceded the incompatible step rather than vice versa, especially for females. It seems that the sport-masculinity association is more subject to the IAT methodological artefact in females. Nosek et al. (2005) demonstrated that using 40 single-categorization trials to the reversed single discrimination practice block reduced pairing order effects, and even eliminated them. Thus, before concluding that the automatic association between gender and sport is more malleable in females, it would be interesting to investigate whether using Nosek et al. s (2005) remediation would be sufficient to eliminate the effects of the order of IAT performance blocks observed here in females. Addressing this latter issue is important with regard to previous IAT research in gender-related fields. For instance, Park, Cook, and Greenwald (2001) found that men showed greater acceptance of the stereotype that science is a male field and art is a female field. Further, Nosek, Banaji, and Greenwald (2002) indicated that stronger implicit math-male and artsfemale associations were related with stronger math attitudes, identity, and performance among men, whereas the opposite results were found among women. It would notably be interesting to examine whether the legislative and social actions that have been conducted these last decades in order to promote equality in sport have succeeded in reducing gender stereotypes among females at the implicit level in particular. Recent studies concerning sex-typing of particular sports suggested that female repetitive participation and images in sports could challenge traditional attitudes about gender (Hardin & Greer, 2009; Riemer & Visio, 2003). Specifically, most growth in female participation has been reported in neutral-typed sports and masculine-typed sports and consequently, traditional masculine sports could be especially viewed by females as less masculine than by males (see Hardin & Greer, 2009; Riemer & Visio, 2003). It could thus be valuable to also examine automatic gendered attitudes in females when sex-typing of different sports is questioned, and notably masculine sports. 9

10 Given that the IAT order effect has frequently been reported (e.g., Nosek et al., 2005), the fact that this order effect was observed among females is not surprising. However, it is surprising that males were not sensitive to it. It suggests that the automatic association between gender and sport is very robust in males minds to the extent that it is stronger than the order effect inherent to the IAT. It may reflect the lesser social latitude to participate in sports arena that males have to face (Hardin & Greer, 2009). In fact, recent studies supported that males participating in feminine sports are viewed as less acceptable than females participating in masculine sports (Riemer & Visio, 2003; Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). For instance, Riemer and Visio (2003) found that best sports for girls were expanded to include more masculine sports, whereas feminine sports were not listed by participants for a best sport for a boy. Reconsidering the sport-masculinity association in the cognitive network of males may be attained by efforts done to challenge the less latitude of males in cross-sex-typed sports. In addition to continue efforts promoting global female sport participation, it may be now time to accentuate efforts aiming at specifically increasing male participation in feminine sports to totally challenge traditional sex-typing of sport. Also, while efforts have been undertaken to reduce the IAT order effect, which is considered as a bias of IAT procedures (Greenwald et al., 2003; Nosek et al., 2005), the present findings suggest that it may provide relevant and sizeable insights of the strengths of the automatic associations being measured. Therefore, it seems important to take into account potential interactions between the stimuli configuration and individuals category membership, which have been identified by Blair (2002) as factors of the automatic expression of attitudes. Furthermore, all the above remarks are also valuable for the educationfemininity association because IAT-effects are always a function of two target categories. This study provided evidence that education was overall a gendered context implicitly and explicitly linked to femininity. In order to verify whether both associations would be still subject to variations according to the sex of participant and order of congruent/incongruent blocks, it would be interesting in future research to assess separately both sport-masculinity and education-femininity associations using a measurement tool designed for that purpose (e.g., Go/No-Go Association Task; Nosek & Banaji, 2001). Specifically, using such a tool could be useful to examine the influence of implicit gender attitudes concerning sport on sport participation. To our knowledge, this issue has not been investigated so far and could be a fruitful avenue of research. The present study showed that explicit and implicit gender attitudes are distinct and, consequently, the influence of each on sport 10

11 participation should be distinguished. Moreover, we used a limited sample of students, mainly physically active, to evaluate the general perceptions of the domains. It is possible that the strong gender automatic associations observed among males could be explained by their involvement in sports (see Nosek et al., 2002). Recruiting a broadly representative sample of the adult general population is thus necessary to increase the external validity of the present results. In particular, it would be valuable to control in a larger sample the participation in physical activity and the level of practice. To conclude, this study confirmed that sport is still a masculine domain and that this association is deeply rooted in the cognitive network of individuals, regardless of their gender-role orientation. However, the automatic association between gender and sport was highly fixed in men. The fact that men are more susceptible to this automatic association may be interpreted in light of the still higher participation of males in sport and the less latitude of males in cross-sex-typed sports. This suggests that males, presumably because of their dominant position in the field of sports, may have been the rather forgotten group within the extensive efforts made on behalf of equality in sport. Acknowledgements We wish to express our gratitude to Laura Schuft for her valuable comments on an earlier version of this draft. REFERENCES Baucom, C., & Lantz, C., (2001). Faculty attitudes toward male Division II student-athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing source. Psychological Review, 88, Blair, I. V. (2002). The malleability of automatic stereotypes and prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 6, Bois, J. E., Sarrazin, P. G., Brustad, R. J., Trouilloud, D. O., & Cury, F. (2002). Mothers expectancies and young adolescents perceived physical competence: A yearlong study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, Cognard-Black, A. J. (2004). Will they stay, or will they go? Sex-atypical work among token men who teach. The Sociological Quarterly, 45, Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2005). Family socialization, gender, and sport motivation and involvement. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27, Gana, K. (1995). Androgynie psychologique et valeurs socio-cognitives des dimensions du concept de soi. Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale, 25,

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