AQA A Level Psychology. Topic Companion. Research Methods. Joseph Sparks & Helen Lakin

Transcription

1 AQA A Level Psychology Topic Companion Research ethods Joseph Sparks & Helen Lakin

2 Page 2 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Contents Topic xperimental ethods 3 Observational Techniques 8 15 Correlations 20 Case Studies [A-Level Only] 23 Aims, Hypotheses, IVs And DVs 25 Sampling 28 Pilot Studies and xperimental Design 34 Control, Demand Characteristics, and Investigator ffects 38 thical Guidelines, Peer Review and The conomy 41 Types of Data 47 Descriptive Statistics 50 Presentation and Display of Quantitative Data 57 Distributions: Normal and Skewed Distributions 59 Content Analysis [A-Level Only] 60 Features of Science [A-Level Only] 63 Reliability [A-Level Only] 66 Validity [A-Level Only] 69 Reporting Psychological Investigations [A-Level Only] 72 The Sign Test [As And A-Level] 77 Levels of easurement [A-Level Only] 80 Probability and Significance [A-Level Only] 83 Statistical Tests [A-Level Only] 85 Appendices 90 Self-Report Techniques

3 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 3 XPRINTAL THODS Specification: xperimental method. Types of experiment: laboratory and field experiments; natural and quasi experiments. WHAT YOU ND TO KNOW Outline and evaluate laboratory experiments. Outline and evaluate field experiments. Outline and evaluate natural experiments. Outline and evaluate quasi experiments. Introduction xperimental methods all have one thing in common: they are attempting to find a cause and effect relationship between an independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV), and to measure the extent of this effect. There are four different types of experiment: 1. Laboratory experiment 2. Field experiment 3. Natural experiment 4. Quasi experiment Summary of xperimental ethods STTING IV DV LABORATORY Controlled conditions anipulates the IV easures the DV FILD anipulates the IV easures the DV Natural conditions Controlled conditions /Natural conditions NATURAL Natural conditions QUASI IV is naturally occurring (e.g. unemployment and an earthquake) IV is a difference between people (e.g. gender and age) easures the DV easures the DV Laboratory xperiments Laboratory experiments are conducted under specified controlled conditions in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). The conditions are heavily controlled in order to minimise the effect of any extraneous variables, to prevent them from becoming a confounding variable which might adversely affect the DV. Participants will be aware that they are taking part in an investigation due to the contrived nature of the situation which may feel unlike real life.

4 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 4 valuating Laboratory xperiments A strength of laboratory experiments is the high degree of control over extraneous variables which can be achieved. A researcher is therefore able, in most cases, to prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables which negatively affect the DV. This provides a high degree of internal validity allowing for conclusions about cause and effect to be drawn between the IV and DV. A limitation of laboratory experiments is that they can lack external validity. The artificial nature of the environment in which the investigation is taking place means that the study can lack ecological validity. This means that the findings of the study cannot always be generalised to settings beyond the laboratory as the tasks often lack mundane realism and would not be everyday life occurrences. Since participants know they are being investigated their behaviour can also change in an unnatural manner resulting in demand characteristics being seen. Field xperiments Field experiments are carried out in natural conditions, in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable (IV) to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). The field is considered any location which is not a laboratory. Participants in a field experiment typically do not know that they are taking part in an investigation with a view to observing more natural behaviour. valuating Field xperiments The natural setting means that field experiments often have a higher level of ecological validity, in comparison to laboratory studies. This means that the results are more likely to be representative of behaviour witnessed in everyday life. However, because the setting is more natural, there is less control over extraneous variables. These can then become confounding variables and distort the findings meaning a firm cause and effect relationship cannot be drawn since other factors could have had an impact on the DV, other than the IV. There are important ethical issues associated with field experiments. Since participants are often unaware that they are in fact participants in a psychological investigation, they cannot give informed consent to take part. As such, the research may involve a breach of their privacy rights and a cost benefit analysis will need to be conducted before proceeding with any study to ensure the perceived outcomes from the research will outweigh any personal costs to those involved. Natural xperiments In a natural experiment, the researcher does not manipulate the IV and instead examines the effect of an existing IV on the dependent variable (DV). This IV is naturally occurring, such as a flood or earthquake, and the behaviour of people affected is either compared to their own behaviour beforehand, when possible, or with a control group who have not encountered the IV. It is important to note that it is the IV which is natural in this type of experiment, and not necessarily the context in which the investigation is taking place since participants could be tested in a laboratory as part of the study. valuating Natural xperiments The naturally occurring IV means that natural experiments often have a higher level of external validity compared to laboratory and field experiments. These types of investigations are considered high in ecological validity given the real life issues that are being studied rather than manipulated artificially. However, natural experiments have no control over the environment and subsequent extraneous variables, which means that it is difficult for the research to accurately assess the effects of the IV on the DV. It may be that a confounding variable has affected the results so a cause and effect relationship must be drawn with extreme caution, if at all.

5 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 5 A strength of using natural experiments is the unique insights gained into real life situations from using this methodology. Investigating a naturally occurring IV allows for research to be conducted into areas of psychology that could not be generated for ethical reasons or because of logistical and practical constraints. However, a naturally occurring event that interests researchers may only occur very rarely. This limits the opportunity to generalise the results to other similar events or circumstances. Quasi xperiments Quasi experiments also contain a naturally occurring independent variable (IV), but one which already exists. However, in this instance the IV is a difference between people such as gender, age or a personality trait. The researcher examines the effect of this IV on the dependent variable (DV). Quasi experiments do not have to be conducted in a natural setting, although they often are. They may also be conducted in a laboratory setting, under controlled conditions. valuating Quasi xperiments A limitation of quasi experiments is that participants cannot be randomly allocated to research conditions to remove the issue of bias in the procedure. Since the IV is a naturally occurring difference between the participants, the level of IV to which they belong is predecided. This means the psychologist will be less certain that the IV alone will have caused the effect which is measured through the DV as other dispositional or environmental factors may have played a role in the outcome. That being said, quasi experiments allow researchers to compare different types of people easily to provide insight into similarities or differences between these groups which could not be ethically generated otherwise. There are methodological issues associated with conducting quasi experiments. When quasi experiments take place under natural conditions, there is no control over the environment and subsequent extraneous variables, making it difficult to be sure that factors such as age, gender or ethnicity have affected the DV. On the other hand, when quasi experiments take place under laboratory conditions the high level of control means that the research often lacks ecological validity, and the findings cannot always be generalised to a real life setting since behaviour may not translate outside of the research environment. Comparison of xperimental ethods COLOGICAL VALIDITY XTRANOUS VARIABLS RICABILITY LABORATORY Low Controlled High FILD High Not controlled Low NATURAL High Not controlled Low QUASI *Low/High *Controlled/Not controlled *High/Low *The level of each factor depends on whether the quasi experiments are carried out in a laboratory setting or under natural conditions. Possible xam Questions 1. Dr Helpful was interested in studying expectations when meeting a new work colleague for the first time. ach participant who volunteered to take part was taken to the same room where they listened to a description of their new potential work mate called s B. The participants were randomly allocated to one of two groups in the experiment. Dr Helpful gave each participant exactly the same background information about s B, but the order of the information varied depending the experimental condition as follows:

6 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 6 Group 1 Group 2 Three strengths of s B s CV were followed by three negative comments. Three negative comments about s B s CV were followed by three strengths. After listening to the excerpt from s B s CV, each participant was asked to state whether they thought s B would be a competent colleague to have on their work team or not. Dr Helpful recorded how many participants in each group stated that s B was competent. Identify which type of experiment that was conducted by Dr Helpful. (1 mark) 2. What is meant by the term quasi experiment? (2 marks) xam Hint: It is important for students to remember that quasi experiments can be conducted in either a laboratory or a natural setting. 3. Identify two features of an experiment. (2 marks) 4. Outline what is meant by a laboratory experiment. (2 marks) 5. Identify and explain one difference between a laboratory and a field experiment. (2 marks) 6. A psychologist was interested in investigating whether people with phobias were more aware of their own heartbeat than people who do not suffer with a specific phobia. A matched pairs design was adopted. The sample included eight individuals with a phobia and eight people without a phobia. The investigator asked each participant to make an estimation about how fast their heart was beating (in beats per minute). This figure was compared to their actual heartbeat measurement. Results showed that people with a phobia were more accurate at estimating their own heartbeat than people who did not suffer with a phobia at all. xplain why this study is considered a quasi experiment. (2 marks) xam Hint: any students often recognise that quasi experiments do not involve manipulation of the IV, but in questions like this can struggle to apply this understanding to the context of the question; that phobias could be pre existing (evolutionary/biological origin) or naturally occurring (learned from the environment). 7. Describe one difference between a natural experiment and a field experiment. (2 marks) 8. Donald, a middle aged male politician, approached an adult in a busy street and asked for directions to the nearest bus stop. He repeated this with 14 other adults in the same city. ach of the 15 adults asked were then approached by a second researcher, called elania, who showed each of them six photographs of different middle aged politicians, including a photograph of Donald. elania asked the 15 adults to choose the image of the individual who had asked them for directions to the bus stop. elania estimated the age of each of the 15 adults and noted whether each participant had chosen the correct photograph of Donald. Suggest one reason why the researchers decided to use a field experiment rather than a laboratory experiment. (2 marks) xam Hint: Students can gain marks here for responses referring to the benefits in terms of validity or fewer demand characteristics but must elaborate their point fully to achieve the second mark.

7 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 7 9. What is meant by an extraneous variable? (2 marks) xam Hint: Students need to avoid vague definitions of extraneous variables such as, something that cannot be controlled or something that must be controlled. Answers must be specific by referring to the fact that an V is a variable that is not manipulated by the experimenter but may have an effect on the dependent variable making it difficult to establish a cause and effect relationship. 10. xplain why it is important to control extraneous variables in experimental research. (2 marks) xam Hint: Stronger answers to this question will refer to confounding variables in their answer. 11. leanor was interested in investigating the impact of caffeine on memory. Discuss advantages of carrying out an experiment like this in a laboratory. (4 marks) xam Hint: If students write about disadvantages here no marks will be awarded as the question clearly asks for advantages. Answers which refer to specific advantages (e.g. higher control of extraneous variables) and link it appropriately to the scenario (e.g. strength of caffeinated drink assured) will be able to access the full range of marks available. 12. Outline and evaluate the use of laboratory experiments in psychological research. Refer to specific examples in your answer. (8 marks)

8 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 8 OBSRVATIONAL TCHNIQUS Specification: Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled observation; covert and overt observation; participant and non participant observation. Observational design: behavioural categories; event sampling; time sampling. WHAT YOU ND TO KNOW Outline and evaluate observational techniques, including: o Covert and overt o Participant and non participant o Naturalistic and controlled o Structured and unstructured Outline and evaluate the factors involved in the design of observational research, including: o Behavioural categories o vent sampling and time sampling Introduction to Observational Techniques When conducting an observation, the researcher has the choice between: Covert and overt Participant and non participant Naturalistic and controlled Structured and unstructured It is important to note that these techniques are not mutually exclusive: it is quite possible for an observation to be naturalistic, unstructured, participant and covert all at the same time, as these terms refer to different aspects of the methods. Covert Observations A covert observation is also known as undisclosed observation and consists of observing people without their knowledge; for example, using a one way mirror (covert non participant) or joining a group as a member (covert participant). Participants may be informed of their involvement in the study after the observation has taken place. valuating Covert Observations A strength of covert observation compared to overt observation is that investigator effects are less likely. Since the investigator is hidden in this type of observation there is less chance that their direct or indirect behaviour will have an impact on the performance of the participants. As a result, there is less chance of demand characteristics occurring whereby the participant tries to guess the aim of the investigation and act accordingly, since they are unaware that they are being observed. This means that the participants behaviour seen will be more natural and representative of their everyday behaviour. There are ethical issues associated with the covert method of observation inherent within its design. As participants are not aware they are taking part in an investigation, they

9 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 9 cannot give fully informed consent nor exercise their right to withdraw. That being said, it is perfectly acceptable to observe human behaviour in a public place such as a shopping centre. This means that an assessment is made by the investigator before the observation begins to ensure that no privacy laws are being violated. Overt Observations An overt observation is an observational technique where the observations are open and the participants know/are aware that they are being observed. For example, filming publicly (overt non participant) or joining a class and informing the other students that you are carrying out an observation (overt participant). valuating Overt Observations A strength of the overt method is that it is often more ethical than the covert method. Since the participants are aware that their behaviour is being observed for the purposes of a psychological investigation, it is possible to inform them in advance of the aims and thus obtain informed consent. This awareness of participation also allows participants to exercise their right to withdraw themselves or their data from the investigation, before, during or after the observation is conducted. As a result, the reputation of psychological research as being ethical is protected. A drawback of using an overt style of observation is the possibility of investigator effects. It is possible for a bias to occur whereby what the investigator does influences the behaviour of the participants in a way which was not intended (e.g. body language or facial expressions). As a result, the participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims. Therefore, authentic and natural behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the internal validity of the observation because it is overt. Participant Observations In a participant observation, the person who is conducting the observation also takes part in the activity being observed. It can be either covert (a group member quietly observing others without their knowledge) or overt (a group member using a camera to record the behaviour of other members with their full knowledge). valuating Participant Observations A strength of using participant observations in psychological research is that the researcher can obtain in depth data. Since the observer is in close proximity to the participants, they are able to gain a unique insight into the phenomenon in question. In addition, through participating they are unlikely to overlook any behaviour that, as an external observer, would be missed due to nuances only seen by becoming a participant of the activity itself. This means that a comprehensive understanding of human behaviour can be achieved using this method of observation. A disadvantage of using the participant observation method is the possibility of investigator effects and the impact of the researcher on the other participants behaviour. The mere presence of the investigator as a member within the group might influence the participants behaviour in a way which was not intended. Consequently, the participants may change their behaviour through demand characteristics and act in accordance with their perception of the research aims. Consequently, natural behaviour is not being observed, thus reducing the internal validity of the observation because the investigator is a participant.

10 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 10 Non Participant Observations In a non participant observation, the person who is conducting the observation does not participate in the activity being observed. This type of observation is quite common in educational settings, as in teacher evaluations, for example, when an observer sits in the corner of the room and watches the lesson. The aim is for the observer to be as unobtrusive as possible and not engage with any of the activities happening. valuating Non Participant Observations An advantage of using a non participant observation method is that investigator effects are less likely compared to a participant observation. The researcher is often observing at a distance from the participant(s) and in some situations, not visible to them at all. As a result, the behaviour of the investigator is unlikely to have a negative impact on the behaviour of the participants. This means that behaviour observed is more likely to be representative of natural and unaltered human conduct. There are disadvantages associated with the non participant method of observation. Due to a lack of proximity to the participant behaviour being studied, the researcher might miss behaviours of interest. This means that unique insights which contribute to the understanding of the human behaviour being observed will be overlooked because of not being involved personally. Naturalistic Observations A naturalistic observation is an observation carried out in an unaltered setting in which the observer does not interfere in any way and merely observes the behaviour in question as it happens normally. An example of this would be an observation carried out in a shopping centre as people go about their daily business. valuating Naturalistic Observations A strength of using naturalistic observations is that a higher level of ecological validity can be achieved. In an observation of this design, the researcher records naturally occurring behaviour in the original environment in which it ordinarily occurs. This means that the behaviour being recorded is likely to be more representative of everyday activities and reflect spontaneous actions that sometimes occur incidentally. There are issues of ascertaining reliability with naturalistic observations. Since observations of this kind record behaviours which are occurring naturally as they unfold it is difficult, if not impossible, for the exact same conditions to be replicated. Consequently, the test retest method of checking reliability cannot be used with this type of observational design, as the researcher is not in control of variables. This means that research attempting to understand human behaviour using naturalistic observations often lacks replicability. Controlled Observations A controlled observation is conducted under strict conditions, such as in an observation room or laboratory setting where extraneous variables (such as time of day, noise, temperature and visual distractions) can be controlled to avoid interference with the behaviour being observed. Sometimes one way mirrors can be used for these types of observations. If the participants know they are being observed, this is an overt method which is most commonly the case for controlled observations. valuating Controlled Observations A strength of controlled observations is that they can be replicated to check for reliability. By their very nature, the variables are highly controlled in this type of observational design. This means that standardised procedures, the manipulation of the independent variable and control over extraneous

11 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 11 variables can be repeated by the same, or different, researchers to assess the reliability. A criticism of controlled observation is that they have a lower level of external validity. The researcher records behaviour in an artificial environment with variables subject to strict manipulation. This high level of control comes at a cost with the setting of the observation feeling quite unnatural as a result. Therefore, the participants behaviour may alter in response meaning that the observation no longer represents real life occurrences causing the ecological validity of the findings to be questionable. Structured Observations In structured observations, the researcher uses coded schedules according to a previously agreed formula to document the behaviour and organise data into behavioural categories. A behavioural category is when psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined. This involves breaking the target behaviour (e.g. aggression) into components that can be observed and measured (e.g. hitting or kicking). valuating Structured Observations A strength of structured observations is that the researcher can compare behaviour between participants and across groups. The use of operationalised behavioural categories makes the coding of the data more systematic. When there is more than one observer, the standardised behaviour schedule results in greater inter observer reliability. It is important for research methodologies to be consistent so that accurate comparisons can be made. However, there may be problems with ascertaining high internal validity in a structured observation. This is because the researcher may miss some crucial behaviours during the observation which is pertinent to the aim of the investigation. As a result, the findings portrayed may not provide the full picture about the behaviour in question, as they could lack the finer details. This is a problem because what was intended to be measured was not achieved in its entirety. Unstructured Observations An unstructured observation involves every instance of the observed behaviour being recorded and described in as much detail as possible. This is useful if the behaviour that researchers are interested in does not occur very often and is more usual with naturalistic observation. valuating Unstructured Observations A strength of unstructured observation is the richness of data obtained. Since behaviour is recorded in great detail, researchers are able to obtain a comprehensive view of human behaviour. This adds to the internal validity of the observational technique. Additionally, this type of observation is also prone to observer bias due to the lack of objective behaviour categories. This is a problem because the observer may then only record behaviour which is of subjective value to them, and not a valid representation of what is being displayed. As a result, there may be a problem with inter observer reliability as there will be a lack of consistency in the observations recorded.

12 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 12 Comparison of Observational Techniques OVRVIW STRNGTHS LIITATIONS Undisclosed: Participant is not aware Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely Less ethical: lack of informed consent OVRT OBSRVATION Participant is aware ore ethical: informed consent obtained Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely PARTICIPANT OBSRVATION Researcher takes part (close In depth data is gathered proximity) due to close proximity COVRT OBSRVATION Investigator effects and demand characteristics are less likely Investigator effects and demand characteristics are more likely Researcher might miss behaviours of interest due to lack of proximity Takes place in naturalistic (unaltered) setting Higher level of ecological validity Issues with replication and ascertaining reliability Takes place in artificial (controlled) environment Can be replicated to check Lower levels of ecological reliability validity NATURALISTIC OBSRVATION CONTROLLD OBSRVATION STRUCTURD OBSRVATION NON PARTICIPANT Researcher does not take OBSRVATION part (not close proximity) UNSTRUCTURD OBSRVATION Behaviour is coded using behavioural categories Higher levels of inter observer reliability Less rich data can lack internal validity as researchers miss important behaviours very instance of behaviour Rich data leads to greater Lower levels of inter is recorded and described internal validity observer reliability xam Hint: Although there are many strengths/limitations of observations, you will notice that for each pair of observations (i.e. covert and overt) the strength of one type (i.e. covert observations have a lower chance of investigator effects) is the limitation of the opposite type (i.e. overt observations have a higher chance of investigator effects). In observations, the observer generally has the choice of two methods: time sampling or event sampling. TI ING VNT ING This is where an observer records This is where an observer records the behaviour at prescribed intervals, e.g. number of times that the target behaviour every 10 seconds. occurs, e.g. using a tally. very behaviour of interest to the Time sampling methods allow for a better researcher, in theory, will be counted from STRNGTH use of time since fewer observations are the beginning through to the end of the made. observation. There is the possibility that some Not every behaviour of relevance to the behaviours could be missed if there is too LIITATION investigation will be counted if it occurs in much happening at the same time, between the time frames allocated. resulting in some not being coded.

13 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page 13 Possible xam Questions 1. xplain how observational research can be enhanced through the use of operationalised behavioural categories. (2 marks) 2. xplain what is meant by overt observation. (2 marks) 3. Describe what is meant by participant observation. (2 marks) 4. xplain what is meant by event sampling in relation to observational research in psychology. (2 marks) 5. Controlled observation techniques have been used in the Strange Situation to investigate cultural variations in attachment. Suggest one advantage of using controlled observation in psychological research. (2 marks) xam Hint: It is important for students to only express one advantage of using a controlled observational method for this question using the name and explain method of elaboration. 6. Briefly explain how a psychologist could improve her research by conducting observations in a controlled environment. (4 marks) 7. xplain the difference between a participant observation and a non participant observation. You may use an example to support your point. (4 marks) xam Hint: Note that this question is asking for a difference and not a definition of each observational method, so the response must be tailored accordingly. 8. Identify and explain one strength and one limitation of conducting naturalistic observations. (4 marks) 9. A developmental psychologist was interested in investigating the effects of early and late adoption on future aggressive behaviour in children. She compared the behaviour of children who had been adopted before the age of two with children who had been adopted after the age of two. The children were observed in their primary school playground when they were seven years old. Suggest two operationalised behavioural categories that the developmental psychologist could use in her observation of aggressive behaviour in children and explain how the psychologist could have carried out this observation. (4 marks) xam Hint: This is a context based question so explicit reference to the scenario is required to gain full credit. Note that behavioural categories such as verbal aggression and physical aggression would not be awarded any marks as they are not operationalised. Suggestions such as kicking or swearing would be creditworthy as they are specific and measurable. To answer the second component of this question, most students will refer to the use of a tally chart for recording behaviours observed on an event sampling basis.

14 AQA A LVL Psychology topic companion: RSARCH THODS Page Read the item below and then answer the question that follows. Dr Fox was interested in the differences between male and female communication skills. Past research has investigated gender differences in this field of psychology through focusing on fluency in spoken word communication and non verbal communication such as body language and facial expressions. Design an observational study for Dr Fox to be able investigate differences between males and females in non verbal communication when they are giving a presentation to a large audience. (12 marks) In your answer, you must refer to: a. the task used for the participants to complete b. the behavioural categories to be implemented and how the data will be recorded c. how reliability of the data collection might be established d. ethical issues to be considered.

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