The Role of Preconsumption Affect in Postpurchase Evaluation of Services

Transcription

1 The Role of Preconsumption Affect in Postpurchase Evaluation of Services Anna Mattila Pennsylvania State University Jochen Wirtz National University of Singapore ABSTRACT The primary objective of this article is to examine the impact of preconsumption affect on consumers postpurchase evaluations. More specifically, we wanted to investigate how the two basic dimensions of affect pleasure and arousal contribute to customer evaluations of different types of services. To test our hypotheses, four service settings reflecting the quadrants in Russell s Circumplex Model of Affect were chosen. Data were collected at two points of time: at the preprocess stage and immediately after the core service delivery. The results of this study suggest that pleasure and arousal, the two dimensions of emotional responses to the preprocess service environment, may interact in determining postpurchase evaluations. The interaction effect was observed for global satisfaction judgments and for repeat purchase behavior, thus suggesting that the combined effects of arousal and pleasure need to be considered in the design of preconsumption service settings John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Recently, the study of consumption-related emotions has received increasing attention from consumer-behavior researchers (Richins, 1997). Affective reactions to consumption stimuli deserve specific study because consumer emotions may be as essential as cognitive processes to fully understand consumer behavior (Batra & Ray, 1986; Derbaix & Psychology & Marketing 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vol. 17(7): (July 2000) 587

2 Pham, 1991). Understanding the role of emotions in the evaluation process is particularly important for the study of service encounters (Price, Arnould, & Deibler, 1995). Rapidly growing atmospherics literature suggests that a preprocess service setting may influence consumer evaluations of the core service (Walker, 1995). The main objective of this study is to examine how preconsumption affect elicited by environmental elements might influence consumers postpurchase evaluations of various services. The interactive nature of services (Bateson & Hoffman, 1999) is likely to enhance the importance of (a) the social situation and environment in which consumption takes place, as well as (b) the internal state of people, generally referred to as affect, in customer evaluations of the service encounter. Feelings and emotions experienced during the service delivery process are necessary to adequately capture the experiential nature of the service encounter (Bateson & Hui, 1987; Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Hui & Bateson, 1991). In accordance with the literature (e.g., Batra & Stayman, 1990; Isen, 1984), moods are here defined as mild, pervasive, and generalized affective states, rather than intense emotions. Because affective processes are thought to be partially outside the customer s conscious control, cognitive and affective responses can be seen as distinct (Liljander & Strandvik, 1997). Oliver (1993) suggested that affect can have a dual role in satisfaction judgments. First, affect can act as a mediator between cognitive evaluations, and second, emotions can also contribute independently to satisfaction (Muller, Tse, & Venkatasubramaniam, 1991; Westbrook, 1987). Consequently, affect is not only an important dimension of the service experience, but also a determinant of consumer satisfaction (Westbrook, 1987; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). A servicescape refers to the built environment, that is, the manmade, physical surroundings as opposed to the natural or social environment (Bitner, 1992). The physical environment is particularly salient for services, as most services are produced and consumed simultaneously, with the consumer in the factory experiencing the total service within the firm s physical facility. Bitner (1992) suggested that the service setting can affect consumers emotional, cognitive, and physiological responses, which in turn influence their evaluations and behaviors. Our focus is on affective responses or feelings that are created by contact with the physical environment. Environmental elements within the services setting influence emotions in two dimensions: pleasure and arousal (Donovan & Rossiter, 1992; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). The pleasure dimension refers to the degree to which a consumer feels good or happy with the environment, whereas arousal refers to the degree by which the person feels excited, stimulated, or active in an environment. Servicescape may influence the consumer s affective state in either a positive or negative direction (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), which in turn may affect postpurchase evaluations. 588 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

3 To summarize, the primary goal is to examine the impact of preconsumption affect on consumers postpurchase satisfaction judgments. More specifically, we wanted to investigate how the two basic dimensions of affect pleasure and arousal contribute to customer evaluations of different types of services. CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND Environmental Psychology and Affect Various theorists have tried to examine the content of affect, the dimensions that underlie it, and the distinction between types of affect. Different approaches have been used: facial expression research (Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980; Ekman, Freisen, & Ellsworth, 1982; Izard, 1977; Tomkins, 1980), language-based research (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Russell, 1980; Russell, Ward, & Pratt, 1981); and logical theory derivation and testing based on a psychoevolutionary perspective (Plutchik, 1980). Although most empirical studies on emotions in satisfaction research have used Izard s Differential Emotions Scale (Liljander & Strandvik, 1997), Russell s model of affect was chosen for the present investigation for several reasons. First, the two models based on facial expression research and psychoevolutionary perspectives only define discrete dimensions, which do not capture the possible similarities and differences among emotions (C. A. Smith & Ellsworth, 1985). Second, the Russell model separates cognition from affect. Russell defines affect as an internal state being comprised of pleasure and arousal. This two-dimensional matrix categorizes all affective responses as valenced combinations of pleasure and arousal (Baker, 1996). Other dimensions of affect (e.g., locus of causality, importance of the emotion, locus of control, and dominance) can thus be interpreted as cognitive appraisals (Wirtz, 1994). In contrast, Izard s and Plutchik s frameworks implicitly include cognitive processes in their models. Third, our goal was to assess consumers responses to the preconsumption retail environment as opposed to interpersonal aspects of consumption, thus further justifying the use of this emotions scale (Richins, 1997). The Russell framework is illustrated in Figure 1. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) suggested that affect mediates the relationship between the physical environment and an individual s response to that environment, thus resulting in two behaviors: approach or avoidance. Approach behaviors are represented by an individual s desire to stay, explore, or work in an environment, whereas avoidance behaviors refer to the opposite. In terms of consumer behavior, approach behaviors include a desire to patronize an outlet and a willingness to return for future purchases. Because our goal was to examine the impact of the preprocess environment on postpurchase evaluations, the out- PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 589

4 Figure 1. Russell s circumplex model of affect. come variable in the Russell model was changed from avoidance/approach behavior to satisfaction, and repurchase intention. Consumer Satisfaction Satisfaction research has been dominated by disconfirmation-of-expectation frameworks. These disconfirmation models suggest that consumers evaluate consumption experiences and make satisfaction judgments by comparing perceived performance with some preconsumption standard. A direct causal link between disconfirmation and satisfaction has been supported empirically in a number of studies (Cadotte, Woodruff, & Jenkins, 1987; Oliver, 1980a; Oliver & Bearden, 1985a; Oliver & DeSarbo, 1988). Consequently, this link is modeled in this study as such. In addition to the cognitive component, satisfaction is believed to contain an affective response in the absence of which customers responses to a consumption situation cannot be fully accounted for (e.g., Liljander & Strandvik, 1997; Oliver, 1989, 1993, 1997). To better understand the consumer s emotional responses to service situations, a three-stage model has been proposed (Dube-Rioux, Schmidt, & Leclerc, 1989). The stages of the model (preprocess, in-process, and postprocess) are expected to elicit differential emotional responses to service consumption experiences. The focus of this study is limited to the preprocess stage. Prior research suggests that pleasure might be among the key affective states in explaining satisfaction (e.g., Oliver, 1993; Oliver, Rust, & Varki, 1997; Westbrook, 1987; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). For example, in the Oliver et al. (1997) field study, pleasure experienced during consumption had a strong and direct effect on satisfaction and on behavioral intention. However, prior research has 590 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

5 measured emotions at the postprocess stage, thus failing to account for the impact of affect elicited during the preconsumption stage. Research in psychology has identified several mechanisms by which affect might have an impact on people s evaluation processes (Seta, Hayes, & Seta, 1994). Numerous studies have found that individuals selectively attend to information that is consistent with their mood states and show heightened recall of mood-consistent information. The role of affect in priming associated cognitive constructs further suggests that recall might mediate an individual s mood-based evaluations (Bower, 1981; Isen, Clark, & Karp, 1978). An alternative account for mood effects in evaluative judgments is provided by affect as information model (e.g., Hirt, McDonald, & Melton, 1996; Martin, Abend, Sedikides, & Green, 1997; Schwarz, 1997; Schwarz & Clore, 1983). According to this framework, people are assumed to use their mood as a basis for making evaluative judgments. Prior research in marketing has established that consumers mood states influence their immediate product evaluations (Gardner, 1985). Supportive findings for more positive evaluations of products when in a good mood is robust (Clark & Isen, 1982; Isen et al., 1978). The translation of the preconsumption mood effects into consumers postpurchase evaluations is as follows. When an individual enters into the core delivery of the service in a positive affective state, he or she will tend to perceive the entire service experience in a more positive manner. At the time of judgment formation, the consumer is likely to use his or her mood state as an input to the evaluation process. Furthermore, positive affect elicited by the preprocess service setting might result in biased recall, because good moods are linked to positive associations in memory. Hence, the satisfaction judgment of this individual will exhibit bias in a positive direction. Conversely, a person in a bad mood will perceive the service consumption experience in a more negative way. Negative affective states are related to negatively toned cognitions such that the consumer is likely to evaluate the experience as worse than expected (Babin, Darden, & Babin, 1998). Wirtz and Bateson (1999) conducted a study that investigated whether the two dimensions of affect pleasure and arousal interact in determining satisfaction in a manner similar to their interaction with influence approach/avoidance behaviors. Despite its strong theoretical basis (Donovan & Rossiter, 1982; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), the interaction hypothesis was not supported in their controlled lab experiment. A potential explanation might be provided by the research context. Banking services are not typically perceived as exciting or arousing, and hence mood manipulations in that study were limited. Consequently, some of the affective states in Russell s circumplex model (Russell, 1980; Russell & Pratt, 1980; Russell et al., 1981) were not represented in their study. Furthermore, in the Wirtz and Bateson PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 591

6 (1999) study, affective responses were measured after the satisfaction measure, thus resulting in potential confounded effects between affective and cognitive measures. To account for the context-specific nature of emotions (Richins, 1997), different types of services covering the full range of emotions in the Russell model were tested in this study. Field settings were chosen as relatively few studies have examined the effects of naturally occurring mood on judgments (Forgas, 1992). The two dimensions of the Mehrabian Russell model are hypothesized to influence satisfaction judgments in the following manner: In a pleasant environment, increased arousal is likely to enhance satisfaction levels. Conversely, in an unpleasant environment, higher arousal might reduce satisfaction levels or lead to dissatisfaction. The following hypothesis is proposed. H1: The influence of arousal on satisfaction will depend on the level of pleasure experienced at the preconsumption stage. In satisfaction research, the concepts of satisfaction and future purchase behavior are highly linked (e.g., Bearden & Teel, 1983; LaBarbera & Mazursky, 1983; Oliver, 1980). In fact, satisfaction is typically considered as an antecedent to repeat purchase behavior. Because arousal is said to amplify the impact of pleasure on satisfaction (Oliver, 1980; Westbrook, 1987; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991), it seems intuitively appealing that this interaction effect should extend to repurchase intentions. Consequently, the following prediction is advanced. H2: The impact of arousal on repurchase intentions will depend on the level of pleasure experienced in a preconsumption service environment. To summarize, we expect that the dimensions of arousal and pleasure interact in determining consumers postpurchase evaluations including behavioral intentions. To provide further support for the interplay between affect and cognition in consumers satisfaction judgments, disconfirmation of expectations was included as a cognitive component in our conceptualization, as shown in Figure 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Study Design and Data Collection Procedures To encourage the independence between affective and disconfirmation measures, the data collection took place at two points of time. Customers affective responses to the service environment were measured prior 592 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

7 Figure 2. Conceptual model. to the actual core service delivery, whereas satisfaction measures were taken at the end of the consumption experience. Furthermore, the time spent in the service environment prior to affect measures was kept constant in order to standardize the impact of waiting times at the preprocess stage. The choice of the service settings was guided by their intended placement on the four quadrants of Russell s Circumplex Model of Affect. In order to test the interaction hypothesis, special care was taken to ensure that the two dimensions of affect, pleasure and arousal, were not correlated across settings. As a result, the following four service settings were chosen: (a) a beauty center, as a relaxing setting with a low level of arousal but a high level of pleasure; (b) a dental clinic, as a distressing setting with a high level of arousal but low level of pleasure; (c) a rollercoaster ride, as an exciting setting with high levels of arousal and pleasure; and (d) a passport section of an immigration department, as a boring setting with low levels of arousal and pleasure. In the beauty center, the questionnaires were randomly administered to customers requesting facial massages. The beauty center was decorated to be pleasant, with soothing shades of blue for its color theme. The waiting area had two sofas and an ample supply of beauty and fashion magazines. For the dental clinic, the respondents were patients requiring tooth extraction or oral surgery. The posters on the wall demonstrated new techniques in oral surgery, and from time to time the sounds of the drill could be heard. Unlike the beauty center, the dental clinic was not decorated with soft colors; instead white and gray colors predominated. The reception area had rows of plastic seats facing the reception counter. Some reading materials, such as health magazines and brochures, were provided. The roller-coaster ride chosen is known as The Boomerang. This PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 593

8 setting was selected to represent pleasant and arousing environments. The location of the preconsumption or prior to the ride environment further enhanced the arousing quality of the experience. Visitors to this amusement park were able to hear and see what was going on in an actual ride from the waiting area. Consequently, the screaming of the customers on the roller coaster and the roaring of the machine could be heard at the preconsumption stage. In addition, the waiting area posted signage advising people with certain health conditions (e.g., heart problems and pregnancy) to refrain from taking the ride. An international passport section in an immigration department was selected to represent a boring (low levels of arousal and pleasure) setting. Customers at this agency were there to either register for a new passport or to renew their expired ones; therefore, they were not required to perform any mentally or physiologically stimulating activities. The customer waiting area consisted of parallel rows of chairs facing the service counter. No reading materials were provided. Pretest To assure that the service settings were perceived as intended, descriptions and photographs of the customer-service areas were pretested among a convenience sample of 20 undergraduate students. Respondents were asked to choose one adjective of the list provided that best described their feelings in the preconsumption environment. Seventyeight percent of the respondents perceived the beauty center (Setting 1) as a relaxing setting; 81% perceived the dental clinic (Setting 2) as distressing; 94% perceived the roller-coaster ride (Setting 3) to be exciting; and 72% felt that the immigration department (Setting 4) was boring. The results from the pretest thus indicate that the service settings were perceived as intended. Survey Instrument Four versions of the questionnaire were randomly distributed to consumers in each of the four service settings. The measurement scales were standardized, but some key words in the cover letter and in the instructions section were adapted to their respective settings. To minimize potential biases, subjects in all settings were selected across various times of the day across a number of days of a week. The questionnaire was completed by the respondent at two points in time while they were in the service environment. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of manipulation checks for pleasure and arousal. The Mehrabian Russell (1974) 12-item semantic-differential scale was used to assess emotional response toward the service setting. The scales measure two dimensions of affect: pleasure and arousal. The Cronbach alpha values for the two scales were high, 0.95 for arousal and 0.80 for pleasure. This scale was administered to the respondent 594 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

9 after she or he had been in the service setting for few minutes, but prior to the actual core service delivery. In addition, we measured dominance, because dominance-related emotional reactions to an environmental setting might contribute to consumer feelings (e.g., Holbrook, Chestnut, Oliva, & Greenleaf, 1984). Dominance was measured via a 6-item, 7-point scale adapted from Mehrabian and Russell (1974). The second part of the questionnaire, consisting of the disconfirmation and satisfaction scales, was administered to the same respondent after the core service, while she or he was still in the service setting. Two single-item scales were used to measure the customer s summary judgment of overall confirmation/disconfirmation (DISC): the Churchill and Surprenant (1982) 7-point semantic-differential scale (DISC1), and Oliver s (1980) 7-point semantic-differential scale (DISC2). The two scales had a correlation coefficient of A single-item 11-point verbal scale was used for the overall assessment of satisfaction (SAT1) with anchor points at Completely satisfied (100%) and Not at all satisfied (0%). Future repurchase intention (SAT2) was measured with an 11- point rating scale ranging from Certain I d do it again (10) to No chance I d do it again (0). RESULTS Manipulation Checks The mean responses from each of the four service settings are shown in Table 1. The usable number of responses ranged from per cell. As expected, the beauty salon (X1) was perceived as a low-arousal, pleasant setting, whereas the roller-coaster ride (X3) was highly arousing and pleasant. None of the settings were perceived as truly unpleasant; however, the mean ratings for the dental center (X2) and the immigration department (X4) are close to the neutral point on the pleasure dimension and in the right direction in terms of their arousing qualities. To further test the subjects perception of the service settings, oneway analyses of variance (ANOVA) was performed, using pleasure and Table 1. Mean Responses for Arousal and Pleasure Manipulations by Experimental Condition Immigration office Beauty center Dental clinic Roller coaster Arousal 4.96 (L) 5.64 (L) 3.42 (H) 1.54 (H) Pleasure 3.96 (L) 2.63 (H) 4.12 (L) 2.85 (H) a For the arousal scale (1 high, 7 low), whereas for the pleasure scale (1 pleasant, 7 unpleasant). PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 595

10 arousal as dependent variables and service setting as an independent variable. As expected, the pleasure and arousal levels of the service settings were significantly different [F(3,8) 17.5, p.0001 for pleasure, and F(3,8) 98.1, p.0001 for arousal]. The linear contrast between high-arousal settings (roller-coaster ride and dental office) and low-arousal settings (immigration office and beauty salon) was significant for the arousal scale, t 15.4, p.000. Similarly, the linear contrast between the pleasant preconsumption service environments (beauty salon and roller-coaster ride) and the unpleasant settings (immigration office and dental clinic) was significant for the pleasure scale, t 7.15, p.001. Taken together, these results suggest that overall the service settings were perceived as intended. Hypotheses In order to test Hypotheses 1 and 2, we conducted a 2 (arousal) 2 (pleasure) 2 (disconfirmation) MANCOVA. Arousal, pleasure, and disconfirmation were varied at two levels (high/low or exceeding/not exceeding expectations), whereas perceived dominance in the environment was controlled. Respondents whose disconfirmation scale scores were below five (neutral point) on the summated and averaged DISC scale were categorized as expectations not met, whereas scores of five or higher indicated that the service experience exceeded the individual s prior expectations. Because the dependent variables of global satisfaction and repurchase intention were correlated significantly (r 0.793), a MANCOVA with univariate follow-ups was performed. Multivariate and univariate results of the analysis may be found in Table 2. H1 and H2 address the predicted interaction between pleasure and arousal. In addition, consistent with satisfaction literature, we expected a significant main effect for the disconfirmation variable. As shown in Table 1, the multivariate effects are significant for pleasure (Wilks s lambda 0.88; F 4.05, p.05) and disconfirmation (Wilks s lambda 0.64; F 17.69, p.001), as is the interaction effect between pleasure and arousal (Wilks s lambda 0.69; F 14.21, p.001). The main effect for pleasure is qualified by the significant pleasure by arousal interaction. The main effect for arousal as well as the other interaction effects is insignificant. In sum, these results are consistent with H1 and H2. To gain further insight into the pleasure by arousal interaction effect, the univariate scores are plotted in Figures 3 and 4, for global satisfaction and repurchase intention, respectively. Although the univariate F test for global satisfaction fails to reach a statistical level of significance (F 2.03, p.1), the cell means are clearly in the expected direction. Pleasant service environments with high levels of arousing qualities resulted in higher postexperience satisfaction ratings than pleasant en- 596 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

11 Table 2. Source Effects of Arousal, Pleasure, and Disconfirmation Multivariate: Wilks s Lambda F value Degrees of Freedom Univariate: Global Satisfaction Univariate: Repurchase Intention Covariate Dominance Main effects Arousal Pleasure Disconfirmation Interactions Pleasure Arousal Arousal Disconfirmation Pleasure Disconfirmation Three way *p.05. **p * 17.70** 14.22** ** * 18.51** 3.97* vironments that failed to generate arousal among consumers. In other words, high arousal seemed to amplify the impact of pleasure on satisfaction. Conversely, unpleasant preconsumption service environments resulted in lower satisfaction ratings when the level of arousal was low rather than high. The univariate plot for the repurchase intention variable is shown in Figure 4. The effect of arousal is absent in pleasant preconsumption Figure 3. Interaction effect for global satisfaction. PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 597

12 Figure 4. Interaction effect for repurchase intention. environments but sizable in unpleasant physical surroundings. The cell means suggest that at high levels of arousal both pleasant and unpleasant service environments result in equally high repurchase intentions. But future purchase intentions are significantly lower for unpleasant environments than for pleasant preconsumption servicescapes when the arousing qualities associated with the setting were at a low level. DISCUSSION Human behavior is influenced by physical surroundings. Managers of service outlets are increasingly aware of the role of the store environment in enhancing sales (e.g., Milliman, 1982), product evaluations (Bitner, 1986; Spangenberg, Crowley, & Henderson, 1996), and satisfaction (Bitner, 1990). Understanding that the service setting affects consumer responses is helpful; however, it is important to go beyond the general level and to gain insight into how servicescape can be strategically managed (Baker, 1996). The goal of the present investigation was to shed some light on the role of preconsumption affect on consumer evaluations of the service experience. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical investigation that focuses on emotional responses elicited by the physical environment felt at the preprocess stage of service delivery. The finding that consumers affective responses elicited by the preconsumption service environment might influence their postconsumption evaluations contributes new insight into the service marketing literature. 598 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

13 The Role of Pre-Process Environment on Postpurchase Evaluations Several past studies have reported strong links between satisfaction and product-elicited emotions, thus suggesting that both affective and cognitive processes influence consumers satisfaction judgements (e.g., Mano & Oliver, 1993; Oliver, 1989, 1992; Oliver et al., 1997; Westbrook, 1987; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). Consistent with the dominant paradigm in satisfaction research, disconfirmation of expectations had a direct impact on consumers postconsumption service evaluations. Moreover, our results provide additional support for the interplay between affect and cognition in the satisfaction formation process. In contrast to past studies, which have examined consumers affective responses during the consumption stage, this study investigated the impact of affect elicited by the service environment prior to the actual service delivery. The results of this study suggest that preconsumption affective responses to the service environment might guide consumers postpurchase evaluations. The discussion will now focus on the role of arousal in the evaluation process. Prior research has established that pleasantness and arousal are inherent features of product experience (Mano & Oliver, 1993; Oliver, 1992; Westbrook, 1987). However, the arousal dimension of affect has not been rigorously studied in a consumption context. Understanding the role of arousal in the evaluation process is important, because positive consumption experiences can be either agreeable, pleasurable, or exciting, thus differing only on the degree of arousal (Oliver, 1989). Recent empirical studies postulate that arousal might amplify the impact of pleasure on satisfaction (Mano & Oliver, 1993; Oliver, 1980; Westbrook, 1987; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). Our goal was to provide new insight into the role of arousal by examining the interaction between two affective dimensions (pleasure and arousal) in a satisfaction context. The stimulus organism response paradigm postulates that environment is a stimulus that contains cues that affect people s internal evaluations, which in turn create approach/avoidance behaviors (Craik, 1973; Mehrabian & Russell, 1974). Prior work in environmental psychology provides support for the interaction of arousal and pleasure on approach and avoidance behaviors (Donovan & Rossitier, 1982; Mehrabain & Russell, 1974). Overall, the results from our investigation support the interaction effect in a postpurchase evaluation context. Providing preconsumption environments that were highly arousing and pleasant resulted in higher satisfaction ratings with the service experiences than providing a pleasant environment with low levels of arousing qualities. In terms of repurchase intentions, the effect of arousal was observed for unpleasant service settings. Combining an unpleasant PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 599

14 preconsumption service environment with low levels of arousal generated lower repurchase intentions than pleasant yet unexciting settings. Consequently, the influence of arousal on postpurchase evaluations seems to depend on the level of pleasure experienced in the preconsumption servicescape. The choice of experimental settings in this study might have contributed to the differential interaction patterns between global satisfaction and repurchase intention. Consumers are not likely to show high return intentions with an immigration office because using this type of service is typically required for other than consumption-related purposes. Furthermore, the choice of service providers (immigration office locations) might present another constraining factor for future behavioral intentions. Similarly, consumers might not always have a free choice in selecting dental services because of the restrictions imposed by insurance providers. In sum, having two settings with limited choice options might have somewhat skewed the results for the future behavioral intention variable. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS Contemporary marketing suggests that the service provider makes a self-statement through its physical environment (Schmitt & Simson, 1997). The management can manipulate these environmental identity elements or atmospherics. This study found that the two dimensions of emotional responses to physical environments pleasure and arousal have combined effects on postpurchase evaluations. In other words, the influence of arousal in preservice environments might depend on the level of pleasure experienced in that setting. These findings imply that managers can manipulate postexperience satisfaction levels and future purchase behavior by emphasizing the right cues in the preconsumption physical environment. The first step in strategically managing the servicescape is to identify desired behaviors to be elicited by the physical environment (Baker, 1996). Sensory perception refers to what people see when they enter a service environment and how they react to it. Consumer behavior research suggests that below the point of optimal arousal boredom kicks in, whereas above the optimal point consumers might start feeling nervous and irritated (Sanbonmatsu & Kardes, 1988). For example, dentists, hospitals, and other medical professionals might want to design the servicescape so that the level of arousal will be minimized. Similarly, beauty salons might call for minimally arousing physical environments, thus enabling consumers to maximize the state of relaxing. Entertainment-type services such as amusement parks, on the other hand, might want to make the environment as exciting as possible by manip- 600 MATTILA AND WIRTZ

15 ulating cues in the physical environment. By including this link between the service environment and affect into the conceptual model, managers will be able to assess the impact of different environmental variables (e.g., music, lighting, layout, and signage) on the affective state of their customers in their service setting and subsequently on satisfaction (Carbone & Haekel, 1994). LIMITATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH This investigation was a field study, and hence lacks the control feature of laboratory experiments. Nevertheless, investigation of naturally occurring emotions was deemed desirable because this method enhances the external validity of the study results. However, the use of four different settings might have introduced additional noise in the data. The relatively small sample size (18 19 observations per cell) further limits the generalizability of our findings. Future work incorporating larger sample sizes and different service settings is needed to validate the results of this investigation. If affect and cognition are interdependent response systems (Forgas, 1992), mood states elicited by the service environment at the preconsumption stage might act as information cues at the time of satisfaction judgment formation. Prior research in marketing and psychology suggests that consumers mood states might bias their immediate product evaluations (Clark & Isen, 1982; Gardner, 1985; Isen et al., 1978). A variety of explanations have been offered to account for mood effects; see Mackie and Worth (1991) for affect priming, Ottati and Isbel (1996) for mood misattribution, and S. Smith and Petty (1995) for the heuristic processing hypothesis. Future research is warranted to determine the actual mechanism by which affective responses elicited by the service setting influence postconsumption satisfaction judgments. In conclusion, the results of this study make a contribution to the services marketing and consumer-behavior literature by demonstrating that affective responses elicited by the preprocess physical environment might influence consumers postconsumption evaluations. The interaction effect between pleasure and arousal found in this study suggests that service organizations might need to carefully consider the level of arousing qualities in the design of preconsumption service environments. REFERENCES Babin, B., Darden, W., & Babin, L. (1998). Negative emotions in marketing research: Affect or artifact? Journal of Business Research, 42, PRECONSUMPTION AFFECT 601

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