Personality Dimensions and Arousal

Transcription

1 Personality Dimensions and Arousal

2 PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University of North Carolina, Wilmington DETERMINANTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Factors Edited by Mark Galizio and Stephen A. Maisto HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Edited by John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT AND SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Jaan Valsiner THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Developmental Perspective Edited by Lawrence C. Hartlage and Cathy F. Telzrow PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Natural Science Approach Hans J. Eysenck and Michael W. Eysenck PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND AROUSAL Edited by Jan Strelau and Hans J. Eysenck PERSPECTIVES ON BIAS IN MENTAL TESTING Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Robert T. Brown THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY Edited by Hans J. Eysenck and Irene M?rtin A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

3 Personality Dimensions and Arousal Edited by JAN STRELAU University of Warsaw Warsaw, Poland and HANS J. EYSENCK Institute of Psychialry University of London London, England Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

4 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Personality dimensions and arousal. (Perspectives on individual differences) Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Personality Physiological aspects. 2. Arousal (Physiology) I. Strelau, Jan. II. Eysenck, H. ]. (Hans Jürgen), III. Series. QP402.P ' ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1987 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

5 Contributors Kristen Joan Anderson, Department of Psychology, Colgate University, Hamilton, New York John Brebner, Department of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia Monte S. Buchsbaum, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California Gordon Claridge, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England Christopher Cooper, Department of Psychology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia Andrzej Eliasz, Department of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Hans J. Eysenck, Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, London, England Michael W. Eysenck, Department of Psychology, Birkbeck College, University of London, London, England Jochen Fahrenberg, Institute of Psychology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Federal Republic of Germany Anthony Gale, Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, England Richard J. Haier, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California v

6 vi CONTRIBUTORS Michael S. Humphreys, Department of Psychology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Mark Katz, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California Tatiana Klonowicz, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Paul M. Kohn, Department of Psychology, York University, Downsview, Ontario, Canada Luciano Mecacci, Institute of Psychology, CNR, Roma, Italy William Revelle, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois David L. Robinson, Department of Psychology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Pavel V. Simonov, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Ken Sokolski, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California Jan Strelau, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland Peter F. Werre, Psychiatric Centre Rosenburg, The Hague, The Netherlands Marvin Zuckerman, Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

7 Preface At the beginning of this century, Pavlov developed a plan to explain individual differences in temperament by means of some features of the central nervous system (CNS). This attempt to seek explanations for individual differences in personality in physiological, especially in neurological mechanisms, led later on to research on several personality/temperament dimensions, such as, extraversion, strength of the nervous system, sensation seeking, and so on. Concepts like excitation, inhibition (especially transmarginal or protective inhibition), and, after Moruzzi and Magoun's discovery of the arousing role of the reticular formation, the concept of arousal/activation gained great popularity among biologically oriented personality researchers interested in the biological basis of personality. Facts collected during the last decades by neurophysiologists as well as by other specialists made it clear that there exist many anatomical-physiological mechanisms responsible for the organism's level of arousal/activation-the endocrine system, the autonomic nervous system, and the CNS with all of its levels and structures. It also became evident that arousal refers to different phenomena at the introspective, behavioral, psychophysiological, and electrophysiologicallevels. The very fact that the theoretical construct of arousal does not refer to a unidimensional phenomenon and that it is concerned with individual stimulus- and response-specific factors led personality researchers interested in the concept of arousal to refer, indeed, to different sets of phenomena. This state of affairs makes contacts more difficult among scientists who apply "arousal" or the notions of excitation-inhibition as key concepts in their personality/temperament theories. A deeper analysis of the separate personality dimensions based on the concept of arousal/activation shows that they often refer to the same phenomena, such as, for example, speed of conditioning, sensory threshold, amplitude of AEP, and so forth. The dimensions of extravervii

8 viii PREFACE sion, impulsivity, sensation seeking, or strength or the nervous system may serve as examples here. The evidence that the different personality concepts have often to do with the same variables or indicators produced a growing tendency to find a common language or at least some mutual understanding among biologically oriented personality psychologists. This tendency is expressed, among other things, in the fact that since the 1960s several meetings have taken place where experts in arousal-oriented personality dimensions had the opportunity to present their theories and to discuss possible links between them. As an example, the symposia that took place during the International Congresses of Psychology held in Moscow (1966), in Leipzig (1980), and in Acapulco (1984) may be mentioned. The trend to exchange ideas among experts in extraversion, neuroticism, anxiety, psychoticism, impulsivity, strength of the nervous system, sensation seeking, reactivity, and augmenting-reducing (all of these dimensions referring to the theoretical construct of arousal) is also observable in publications, the number of which has increased in the last decade. This is evident when one follows the tables of contents of the international journal Personality and Individual Differences as well as of several other published works. Let us mention as well a few books, such as Biological Bases of Individual Behavior, edited by Nebylitsyn and Gray (1972), Biological Bases of Sensation Seeking, Impulsivity, and Anxiety, edited by Zuckerman (1983), or the two volume set of The Biological Bases of Personality and Behavior, edited by Strelau, Farley, and Gale (1985, 1986). One of the common denominators of almost all the publications just mentioned is that authors representing different approaches to the study of personality dimensions present their own concepts and theories without paying much attention (although with some exceptions) to the connections existing between the separate dimensions under discussion. Emphasis on similarities and differences among the biologically oriented personality dimensions, with special attention to the theoretical construct of arousal to which all of them refer, constitutes the specific concern of this volume. Personality Dimensions and Arousal, the authors of which are widely recognized experts representing different approaches and interests in a variety of biologically based personality dimensions, consists of four parts preceded by an Introduction and completed by a Postscript. In the Introduction, Hans J. Eysenck gives a general overview, including a historical account, of the interrelations between personality and the theoretical construct of arousal. Many arguments for the usefulness of the concept of arousal in studies on personality may be found in this introductory chapter.

9 PREFACE ix Part I (Different Perspectives in Research on Extraversion- Introversion) includes chapters that present research on extraversion-introversion conducted in different laboratories and pays attention to various aspects of arousal. Revelle, Anderson, and Humphreys, referring to their own data, argue, among other things, that it is impulsivity rather than E-I regarded as a high order factor that is related to individual differences in the level of arousal. The authors have shown that the study of individual differences in impulsivity combined with studies of human cognitive performance under different levels of arousal leads to interesting results. Cooper and Brebner, taking as a point of departure their stimulus-analysis and response-organization model of extraversion-introversion, postulate that the amalgamation of the constructs of excitation-inhibition and arousal should be considered as an explanatory concept of this personality dimension. In the last chapter of Part I, Werre, using the contingent negative variation as an indicator of the level of arousal, demonstrates the interrelations between level of arousal in task performance situations described as stressful and the level of E-1. In Part II (Studies of Emotionality and Psychoticism), the reader will find a variety of views on the interrelations between the level of arousal/activation and such dimensions as anxiety, neuroticism, emotionality (all three terms often are used interchangeably), and psychoticism. Michael W. Eysenck advances strong arguments that support his view that individual differences in trait anxiety (neuroticism) can be reasonably explained only when both the biological mechanism (limbic arousal) and human cognitive systems are taken into account. A detailed analysis of the concept of arousal within the framework of research in emotionality (neuroticism) is presented by Fahrenberg, who stresses the methodological aspects of studies in arousal! activation. The only study on animals presented in this book and conducted by Simonov supports the hypothesis that the interaction of the frontal neocortex-hypothalamus and the hippocampus-amygdala systems are responsible for the neuroticism (emotionality) dimension in dogs. Claridge's contribution regarding the concept of arousal as related to the psychoticism dimension closes Part II. One of the interesting conclusions by this author states "that the inherent disregulation of the 'psychotic' nervous system can potentially lead to extreme levels (in either direction) of different components of 'arousal.'" The concepts that refer directly to the Pavlovian properties of the conceptual nervous system or for which the neo-pavlovian typology was a starting point are presented in Part III (Neo-Pavlovian Concepts of Temperament). Robinson develops the idea that the diffuse thalamocortical system (DTS), which has specific psychological correlates, serves as the mediator of Pavlovian excitation. Individual differences in

10 x PREFACE arousability are considered as a result of the sensitivity of the DTS neurons. Mecacci, too, discusses the neo-pavlovian features of the CNS within the framework of modern neurophysiology. He pays attention to the so-called general and partial CNS properties that, in his opinion, underlie the different specific patterns of arousal discovered in contemporary research. Both remaining chapters deal with the reactivity dimension, a construct developed on the basis of the theory of strength of the CNS and popular among Warsaw psychologists. The empirical evidence presented by Klonowicz relates to facets of the control of reactivity over various forms of arousal. Eliasz, considering the role of temperament in a system of stimulation control, points out that reactivity has an impact on the formation of cognitive orientation toward various aspects of reality. Part IV (Attempts at Integration Based on the Arousability Concept) includes chapters aimed directly at searching for interrelations among the separate arousal-oriented personality/temperament dimensions. It starts with Zuckerman's chapter in which he discusses the interrelations between strength of excitation, extraversion, anxiety, impulsivity, and sensation seeking, regarding arousal as a key concept of his considerations. The author also presents a multimodal and multiresponse psychophysiological model of sensation seeking. On the basis of psychometric evidence that reflects the link between such dimensions as extraversion, reactivity, neuroticism, augmenting-reducing dimension, and strength of excitation Kohn concludes in his chapter that highly arousable individuals tend to avoid strong stimulation and the reverse. He also discusses important issues regarding the inappropriateness of validating psychometric tests against experimental indexes. The chapter written by Haier, Sokolski, Katz, and Buchsbaum presents a new way of searching for integration among biologically oriented personality dimensions. This is the first time that the technology of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) has been applied in an attempt to see whether the activity of specific brain areas correlates with measures of personality. In the last chapter, Strelau compares eight arousal-oriented personality/temperament dimensions from the point of view of five indexes: inventory data, sensory threshold, amplitude of AEP, efficiency of conditioning, and general behavioral activity. The similarities and differences among the personality dimensions under discussion are enumerated there. The volume also contains a general overview written by Gale. His chapter is presented as a postscript and has been prepared on the basis of all the other papers included here. The main results of his analysis can be found in Table 2 that deals with explanatory constructs, examples of scales, manipulations, and independent and dependent variables presented in the separate chapters. Short comments are included also. The

11 PREFACE xi author introduces in his systems approach analysis of the arousal-oriented personality dimensions the idea of an energic system, a control system, and an evaluation system. Judgments as to the degree to which this volume contains new ideas and whether it can be regarded as a "refreshing breath" in the studies of biologically oriented personality dimensions must be left to the reader. If, after getting acquainted with the content of the book, he or she agrees that reading it was not a waste of time, our expectations will be fulfilled. Much of the editorial work was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Grant RP. III. 25). Jan Strelau Hans J. Eysenck

12 Contents INTRODUCTION Arousal and Personality: The Origins of a Theory 1 HANS J. EYSENCK Historical Anticipations... 2 The Beginnings of Experimental Testing... 4 Pavlovian Theories... 6 The Concept of Arousal The Place of Theory in a World of Facts... 9 "There is Nothing as Useful as a Good Theory" -Lewin References PART I. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES IN RESEARCH ON EXTRA VERSION-INTROVERSION 1. Empirical Tests and Theoretical Extensions of Arousal-Based Theories of Personality WILLIAM REVELLE, KRISTEN JOAN ANDERSON, and MICHAEL S. HUMPHREYS Introversion-Extraversion and Performance Impulsivity, Time of Day, and Task Variables Theories of Arousal and Performance Summary and Conclusions References xiii

13 xiv CONTENTS 2. Excitation-Inhibition and Arousal as Explanatory Concepts for Extraversion CHRISTOPHER COOPER and JOHN BREBNER A Unified Model of Extraversion Some Behavioral Evidence for the Unified Model Electrophysiological Studies: Some Evidence and Some Conclusions References Extraversion--Introversion, Contingent Negative Variation and Arousal PETER F. WERRE Introduction Relationship between Contingent Negative Variation, Extraversion- Introversion and Neuroticism-Stability Interaction between Extraversion-Introversion and Condition as Indicated by Contingent Negative Variation Usefulness of the Inverted-U Model Design of a New Testable Model Limitations of the Model Concluding Remarks References PART II. STUDIES OF EMOTIONALITY AND PSYCHOTICISM 4. Trait Theories of Anxiety MICHAEL W. EYSENCK Introduction The Physiological Basis The Cognitive System Future Trends References

14 CONTENTS xv 5. Concepts of Activation and Arousal in the Theory of Emotionality (Neuroticism): A Multivariate Conceptualization J OCHEN F AHRENBERG Introduction Emotionality (Neuroticism) as Assessed by Questionnaire Activation (Autonomic Arousal) in Eysenck's Theory Evaluation of Psychophysiological Research on Emotionality Multivariate Activation Theory Some Perspectives! Alternatives in Psychophysiological Research on Emotionality Conclusions References Individual Characteristics of Brain Limbic Structures Interactions as the Basis of Pavlovian!Eysenckian Typology PAVEL V. SIMONOV Specific Features of Escape Responses in Rats after Damaging Limbic Brain Structures Hippocampal Theta Rhythm and Conditioned Reflexes Transswitching in Dogs Conclusion References Psychoticism and Arousal GORDON CLARIDGE References PART III. NEO-PAVLOVIAN CONCEPTS OF TEMPERAMENT 8. A Neuropsychological Model of Personality and Individual Differences DAVID L. ROBINSON Introduction Pavlov's Theory

15 xvi CONTENTS The Neural Bases of Introversion-Extraversion and Neuroticism The Neural Bases of Group Intelligence Factors The Neural Bases of Psychoticism and Cognitive Style Pavlovian Concepts, Systems Theory, and Arousability An Integrated Neuropsychological Model Conclusion References Basic Properties of the Nervous System and Arousal Model in the Light of Current Neuropsychophysiology LUCIANO MECACCI The Notion of Basic Properties...,... " 171 Arousal, Cognition, and Persomi.1ity Conclusion References Reactivity and the Control of Arousal 183 TATIANA KLONOWICZ Introduction Reactivity and the Resting Level of Arousal Reactivity and the Impact of Stimulation... " 186 Reactivity and Self-Regulation Reactivity and Anticipation Concluding Observations References Temperament-Contingent Cognitive Orientation toward Various Aspects of Reality ANDRZEJ ELlASZ Introduction General and Selective Sensitivity to Stimuli Studies on Cognitive Orientation toward Various Aspects of Reality Studies on Cognitive Differentiation (CD) of People, Things, and Inner States... " 208

16 CONTENTS xvii Final Remarks References PART IV. ATTEMPTS AT INTEGRATION BASED ON THE AROUSABILITY CONCEPT 12. A Critical Look at Three Arousal Constructs in Personality Theories: Optimal Levels of Arousal, Strength of the Nervous System, and Sensitivities to Signals of Reward and Punishment MARVIN ZUCKERMAN Pavlov: Strength of the Nervous System Neo-Pavlovian Concepts Eysenck: Extraversion and the Optimal Level of Arousal Gray: Sensitivities to Signals of Reward and Punishment Zuckerman: Sensation Seeking, Optimal Level of Arousal of Catecholamine Systems A Multimodal Multiresponse Psychophysiological Study of Sensation Seeking References Issues in the Measurement of Arousability 233 PAUL M. KOHN Arousability and Sensation Seeking General versus Partial Properties Revisited Conclusions References The Study of Personality with Positron Emission Tomography RICHARD]. HAlER, KEN SOKOLSKI, MARK KATZ, and MONTE S. BUCHSBAUM Introduction Method Results Discussion References

17 xviii CONTENTS 15. Personality Dimensions Based on Arousal Theories: Search for Integration JAN STRELAU Introduction Arousal Mechanisms as a Physiological Basis of Different Personality Dimensions Different Components of Arousal Used as Measures of Interrelations among Personality Dimensions Biologically Based Personality Dimensions Measured by Psychometric Data Conclusions and Methodological Remarks References POSTSCRIPT Arousal, Control, Energetics and Values-An Attempt at Review and Appraisal ANTHONY GALE Introduction Common Features of Biological Theories of Personality The Concept of Systems Implications of a Systems Approach for Individual D i f f e r e... ~ n c e s 291 Problems with the Concept of Arousal Arousal and Contemporary Studies of the Expression of Emotion Bioenergetics and Individual Difference Theory The Relevance of Family Process Theory to Individual Differences Research Why Have Psychophysiological Approaches to Personality Failed!' Conclusion References Author Index Subject Index