PSY101 Introduction to Psychology. Frequently Asked Question s (FAQ S)

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1 PSY101 Introduction to Psychology Frequently Asked Question s (FAQ S) What is Primary and secondary memory? Answer: Information that is perceived enters a short-tem store that they termed primary memory. Primary memory has a limited capacity; it can only contain a few items. However, retrieval from primary memory is quite easy. If a piece of information is present in primary memory, the person is almost certain to be able to recall it. While information is in primary memory, it may be rehearsed. Rehearsal has two functions. It tends to maintain information in primary memory, and it can cause transfer of the information to the long-term memory store (which Waugh and Norman called secondary memory). If information is not rehearsed, then it is lost (forgotten) form primary memory, perhaps without ever being transferred to secondary memory. Secondary memory differ form primary memory in several ways. It has an unlimited capacity. Waugh and Norman saw no reason not to assume that an essentially infinite amount of information could be stored in secondary memory. Also, there was no evidence that information is ever lost form secondary memory after it has been transferred there. However, retrieval from secondary memory is much more difficult than retrieval form primary memory. Even if a piece of information is present in secondary memory, we might not be ale to find it. What s the difference between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist? Answer: A clinical psychologist has a doctor of philosophy (PhD) or doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree in clinical psychology. These degrees involve 4-6 years of study and practical experience in graduate school and a year or more of full-time supervised experience in a clinical internship. A doctorate in psychology prepares the psychologist to understand psychological research, and conduct psychological assessment and psychotherapy, which requires a license. Currently, psychologists do not prescribe medication except in the state of New Mexico or when trained for certain federal programs, and only then with extensive additional training in psychopharmacology. A psychiatrist has a doctor of medicine (MD) or sometimes doctor of osteopathic medicine (D.O.) degree, and four years of supervised experience in a psychiatric residency. Medical school primarily prepares the psychiatrist to conduct physical exams and prescribe medical treatments. The psychiatric residency provides training in treating psychiatric disorders. 7- Can Psychologists predict fate or destiny?

2 Answer: This is not actually the case. Lay people have these views because they see that psychologists are capable of accurately telling what type of people others are, what they are capable of doing, what are their potentials and capacities etc. In reality, the case is different since psychologists can only predict not the destiny but the direction that one may adopt in future; psychologists can assess and predict personality and behavior because they get professional training for studying human behavior and that is why they can easily tell what type of a person one is, what might be his potentials, and how much he/ she is capable of performing certain tasks. 8- Can Psychologists give medicines? Answer: Not psychologist, but psychiatrists are the ones who prescribe medicine to the mentally ill patients, as they have a professional degree in medicine that authorizes them to prescribe medication. 9- What are the most prevalent models/approaches/perspectives of psychology? Answer: Biological Approach Psychodynamic Approach Behaviorist / Behavioral Approach Humanistic Approach Cognitive Approach 18- How would you define Experimental Research? Answer: In experimental research experimentation is used for studying a phenomenon. In an experiment the variable of interest (independent variable) is manipulated/ altered and the effect of this manipulation is studied. The main feature of experimentation is control; keeping all those variables and conditions under control, that can have an impact on the findings of the study i.e. variables that can interfere with the impact of the independent variable. 20- What is meant by cognitive development? Answer: Cognitive development is the process of the development of children understanding of the world as a function of age and experience. Cognitive development is the development of the thinking and organizing systems of the brain. It involves Language, Mental imagery, Thinking, Reasoning, Problem solving and Memory development 21- Explain the nervous system?

3 Answer: The Nervous system The system that controls and regulates the structure and function of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and the nerve cells; it maintains coordination between the nervous system and the rest of the bodily systems. It is responsible for the internal communication system that ensures the integrated functioning of the various systems. Main Parts of the Nervous System The Central Nervous System The Peripheral Nervous System 22- What is meant by peripheral nervous system? Answer: The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The part of the nervous system that includes all parts of the nervous system except the brain and the spinal cord Includes: Somatic Division / Somatic Nervous System/ SNS Autonomic division / Autonomic Nervous System/ ANS Somatic Division: controls the voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles. Autonomic division: controls the involuntary movements all over the body; movements of the heart, lungs, stomach, glands and other organs. 23- How can we explain endocrine system? Answer: Endocrine system is a collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate body's growth, metabolism, sexual development and functions. The hormones are released into the bloodstream and transported to tissues and organs throughout the body. 24- What is perception? Answer: Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting stimuli; it includes identification, recognition, and images of the stimulus in question; previous experiences have a role to play in it. Perception is holistic. Perception is the mental organization and interpretation of sensory information Answer: 26- What does perceptual organization mean? Organizing raw sensory stimuli into meaningful experiences. 27- What is Phi phenomenon? Answer: When two lights are in close proximity to each other, flashing alternately, appear to be one light moving back and forth; therefore the whole was different from the separate parts. Movement is perceived whereas it never occurred.

4 28- How would you describe illusions? Answer: Illusion is misperception, or false perception. It is when the physical stimulus constantly and persistently produces error in perception. 32- What are the main stages or extensions of classical conditioning? Answer: Stages and Extensions of Classical Conditioning: Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Higher Order Conditioning 34- How can we apply operant conditioning in real life situations? Answer: Applications of Operant Conditioning Child rearing. Classroom management. Teaching of skills. Animal taming. Advertising. Psychological intervention and Psycho- therapy: behavior modification, assertiveness training, and token economy. 36- How latent learning can be defined? Answer: The type of learning in which the organism does learn or acquire a particular behavior but does not readily demonstrate it until reinforcement is provided; performance may not be the same as what one has actually learnt. 37- What is meant by observational Learning? Answer: Observational learning refers to learning through observation of others behavior; or as a result of modeling. According to Albert Bandura and colleagues, a major portion of our learning is based upon learning by observation. 38- Apply observational learning in real life situations? Answer: Observational learning can be, and has been, used successfully for: Overcoming fears in children Assertiveness training Treating fear of medical treatment and surgery Learning sports and athletics Learning new skills, like swimming Classroom situation: good performers and high achievers are rewarded so that they act as models for other children Learning gender roles Adopting

5 new fashions Starting smoking Drug abuse Drinking alcohol Violence and aggression learnt and displayed by children 52- What is Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs? Answer: It is basically a stage theory. It states that needs at one level have to be met in order for one to move on to higher order. The needs at the lowest/primary/base level are the physiological needs, whereas the highest order needs are the self-actualization needs 53- What do you mean by self actualization? Answer: Self-Actualization is most advanced human need based on the desire to grow and utilize One s potential up to the optimal level. 54- What are emotions? Answer: A response that includes feelings such as happiness, fear, sadness, grief, sorrow etc. It is involves: Physiological arousal Expression of and The conscious or the cognitive experience of the situation that influence behavior. 61-Is the personality measurable? Answer: Psychologists do measure the personality. Following are the assessment techniques used: 1. Interview 2. Observation and behavioral assessment 3. Psychological tests 4. Self-report measures 5. Projective tests 62-Define 16 pf: sixteen personality factor questionnaire? Answer: Cattell identify 16 traits that represent basic dimensions of personality. He called these traits, source traits. Cattell developed a measure that provided a score for each of the 16 source traits. The measure is called sixteen personality factor questionnaire or 16pf. 68-Define emotional intelligence or EI/EQ?

6 Answer: It is the type of social intelligence which is the ability to cope with one s own and Other s emotions, to differentiate between them and use information for guiding one s thoughts and actions. It includes these aspects: Self-awareness Managing emotions Empathy Handling relationships. 3- Who study Psychology? Answer: Psychology attracts many students. Some specialize in Psychology, and they complete BSc or BA degrees with Psychology as their major subject. Others take Psychology because it complements many degrees. For example, many students take some psychology to go with their degrees in Law, Health Sciences, Education, Philosophy, Management, Marketing, Neuroscience, Computer Science, Physical Education, or Consumer and Applied Sciences. 4- What is the scope of Psychology? Answer: After doing a degree course in psychology one may join a variety of work settings, the most common being: Education/teaching Research Hospitals/clinics Recruiting/screening agencies Specialized professional settings e.g. armed forces, social welfare etc. How can you differentiate between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist? Answer: Clinical Psychologists and Psychiatrists are both trained to diagnose and treat psychological disorders and dysfunctions. Both can provide therapy and counseling services for children and adults. Psychiatrists have a general medical degree and then advanced training in psychiatry. Psychiatrists can prescribe medication for people with serious mental illness, such as schizophrenia, whereas psychologists cannot. Clinical Psychologists have a MA, MSc or PhD in Psychology and advanced training in Clinical Psychology (Postgraduate Diploma in Clinical Psychology). As well as therapy and counseling services, clinical psychologists can do psychological testing with well-researched tests. Psychiatrists usually do not do psychological testing. 6- Can psychologists study mind or personality? Answer: This is the most frequent thought that comes into the mind of people who believe that psychologists are like magicians who can tell every thing about any person, his thoughts, feelings emotions, personality and all that other people cannot tell. This actually is not the case, because psychologists are not the magicians or something like that. They are professionals and their area of interest is basically the study of human behavior and mental processes; and this requires good

7 observation as well as good prediction. Another important thing that has to be kept in mind is that not all of those who have a degree in psychology can understand, explain, and predict the personality or behavior of a person, because it mainly requires not just good observation but proper training as well. 10- What are the main concerns of Gestalt psychology? Answer: An approach that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a whole sense rather than on the individual elements of perception. Instead of considering the individual parts that make up thinking, gestalt psychologists took the opposite track. They concentrated on how people consider individual elements as units or wholes. Their contribution in understanding the perceptual phenomena is very significant. 11- What is the main interest of psychodynamic school of thought? Answer: Psychodynamic School focuses on the unconscious forces that drive/ motivate human behavior. This approach concentrates on the belief that behavior is motivated by the inner forces, over which individuals have little control. Founded by the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud in early 1900s, proponents of psychodynamic perspective give importance to the inner unconscious experiences and the forces that led that behavior. Freud believed that unconscious determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th century thinking, not just in psychology but also in related fields a well. Although many of the basic principles of psychodynamic thinking have been highly criticized, the model grown out of Freud s work has provided a way not only for treating mental disorders but also for understanding everyday phenomena such a prejudice and aggression. 12- What is the main focus of behavioristic school of thought? Answer: Behavioristic school of thought focuses on the overt observable behavior. The model emerged as a reaction to the earlier approaches that emphasized the significance of hidden, underlying, predetermined forces. The behaviorists suggest that observable behavior alone should be the main area of interest to psychology. 13- Explain the view of Humanistic school of thought? Answer: The psychological model, that suggests that people are in control of their lives. It is considered as one of the most recent approaches to psychology. This approach rejected the view, that predetermined, automatic, biological forces, unconscious processes or the environment determines behavior. On the contrary, it proposes that people themselves decide about their lives. A failure in being

8 capable of doing so leads to psychological problems. It also stresses the idea that people, by nature, tend to move towards higher levels of maturity and maximum potential. 14- What is the main focus of cognitive school of thought? Answer: The psychological model that focuses on how people know, understands, and thinks about the world. Main emphasis is on how people understand of the world, and their thinking, affects their responses; how it may lead to positive or negative psychological consequences, and even healthrelated outcomes. 15- What is view of biological school of thought? Answer: The psychological model that views behavior from the perspective of biological functioning, the role of brain, genes, neurotransmitters, endocrine glands etc. How the individual nerve cells are joined together, how the inheritance of certain characteristics from parents and other ancestors influences behavior, how the functioning of the body affects hopes and fears, what behaviors are due to instincts, and so on. Psychologists using the biological model view even more complex kinds of behaviors such as emotional responses e.g. anxiety, as having critical biological components. 16- How would you enlist main steps of scientific method? Answer: Main steps of scientific methods are listed below: Identifying the research problem Review of the related literature Formulation of hypotheses Designing and conducting the research Analysis of data Drawing conclusions 43- Are Mnemonics the strategies? Answer: Strategies used for organizing material to be learnt in such a way that encoding and recall is facilitated. These are short, verbal devices that help form association between material to be learnt and material that is familiar and is already stored in memory. 44- What is meant by chunking? Answer: Chunking is a process whereby the items to be learnt are configured by grouping them considering their similarity, or combining them into larger patterns based upon information residing in long-term memory, or on the basis of some other principle of organization.

9 45- How Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon can be defined? Answer: Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon means the Inability to recall events, details, or information that we thought we knew very well. 47- How many types of memory disorders/dysfunctions are there? Answer: Amnesia Dementia Alzheimer s disease Huntington s disease (HD) Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Korsakoff s syndrome 48- What is Motivation? Answer: some goal. Motivation is a desire, drive, instinct or need that speeds up our behavior towards 49- What does motive mean? Answer: A motive is a need or a want that causes us to act. Basically, there are two types of motives that are essential for the proper human functioning: Primary/ unlearnt/ physiological/ biological motives Secondary/ learnt/ psychological motives 65-What is Intelligence Quotient: IQ? Answer: An indicator or measure of intelligent that considers a person s mental as well as Chronological age. The formula for IQ is: IQ score= Mental Age/ Chronological Age x What is DSM-IV-TR? Answer: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders is the classification system compiled by the American Psychiatric Association. This is the most widely used classification system all over the world.

10 70-What are major categories of disorders in DSM-IV-TR? Answer: Anxiety disorders Somatoform disorders Dissociative disorders Mood disorders Schizophrenia Personality disorders Sexual disorders Substance-related disorders Delirium, dementia, amnesia, and other cognitive disorders. 2- What are the major Sub-fields of Psychology? Answer: Behavioral Neuroscience Clinical psychology Clinical Neuropsychology Cognitive Psychology Counseling Psychology Cross-cultural Psychology Developmental Psychology Educational Psychology Environmental Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Experimental psychology Forensic Psychology Health Psychology Industrial/Organizational Psychology Personality psychology Program Evaluation Psychology of women School Psychology Social Psychology Sport psychology 17- What are the types of descriptive research? Answer: Observations Correlational Research Surveys Unobtrusive Methods Focus groups Case studies Meta analysis 19- What are main issues of interest for a developmental psychologist? Answer: Developmental psychologists usually focus on following issues: Is development continuous or discontinuous? Is development general or specific? Is development stable or changing? Are Humans active or passive beings? What is more important in human development nature or nurture? Define depth perception? Answer: Depth perception is the perceptual tendency/ ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the image that falls on the retina of the eye is two-dimensional; thus enabling us to perceive distance. This sort of perception is largely due to the fact that we have two eyes which are slightly distant from each other, so the brain integrates the two slightly different images and combines them into one consolidated view; However the differences in images or Binocular Disparity is not ignored by the brain.

11 29- What is learning? Answer: Learning is commonly understood as the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skill. For a layperson it is knowledge or skill gained through schooling or study. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, and the frequency of its occurrence; this change is not automatic and results from practice or experience 30- Enlist the main explanations of learning? Answer: Three main explanations of learning are: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive approaches to learning 31- Define classical conditioning? Answer: A type of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus starts eliciting a response that was originally the response to a natural stimulus i.e., a stimulus that was meant to produce that response; it so happens because the neutral stimulus had been closely associated with the natural stimulus. 33- What is operant learning? Answer: Type of learning in which a voluntary response becomes stronger or weaker depending on its positive or negative consequences. 35- What does cognitive approach state about learning? Answer: Cognitive approach focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning. This approach gives importance to cognition for understanding and explaining learning. This approach emphasizes Thoughts Feelings Thinking Values Expectations etc Answer: 46- What is forgetting? Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or recall information from the long- term memory. 50- What are the main psychological needs?

12 Answer: Main psychological needs are: Achievement Curiosity Need for appraisal Need for affiliation Need for power Work as motive 55- Can we live without emotions? Answer: Emotions make our life bright and enlightened, because without the experience of emotions, our life would be dull, uninteresting, gloomy and without any purpose Psychologists identified number of functions of emotions that have a vital role in our daily life. They are: Stirred up for the fight or flight action Modifying the future responses and behavior Social interactions are enhanced 56- Do physiological changes occur during emotions? Answer: Following are the changes observed during emotions o Respiratory Changes o Pupillometrics o Changes in Blood Pressure and heart rate o Glandular Responses o Neural Reactions o Galvanic Skin Response o Emotional Intensity and State of Arousal o 8. Other Common Bodily Changes During Emotions Dryness of throat and mouth, Muscle tension, Weakness or fainting, Trembling, and Sinking feeling in heart or stomach. 57-Differentiate creativity and creative thinking? Answer: Creativity may be defined as the innovative, novel responses and ideas into a harmonious whole/ form while Creative thinking is the ability to generate a variety of unusual solutions to a problem 58-What is personality? Answer: Personality is the sum total of characteristics on the basis of which people can be differentiated from each other. It consists of characteristics that are relatively enduring, and that make us behave in a consistent and predictable way. 59-How can we summarize the key concepts of psychodynamic approach? Answer: Psychic Determinism: All behaviors are determined i.e., it has a cause that lies in the mind/psyche. Role of Unconscious: A significant part of our behavior is generated by unconscious forces. Conscious: Contains thoughts and feelings which one is immediately aware of. Subconscious: Mind level below the level of conscious awareness. Preconscious: Part of the sub conscious that can be accessed by

13 deliberate choice. Unconscious: Id: The source of basic drives; operates under the pleasure principle i.e., wants immediate gratification of needs. Ego: Mediates the link of the self with the outside world, the real world, as well as between the id and superego; ego operates under the reality principle or the demands of the environment. Super Ego: Governed by the moral constraints Opposes the id and represents the moral demands of the family and society; it is the moral self or the conscience of a person. 60-What does trait approaches states? Answer: Trait approaches states that there are certain traits that form the basis of an individual s personality. 63-What is MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)? Answer: It is the most frequently used personality test. It was initially developed to identify people having specific sorts of psychological difficulties. But it can predict a variety of other behaviors too. 64-What is intelligence? Answer: According to Feldman intelligence is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges 66-How we can define moral Intelligence? Answer: It is the ability to differentiate between right and wrong. More comprehensively, it is the capacity of making right decisions that are not only beneficial for one self but to others as well estion: 67-What is Social Intelligence? Answer: It is the ability to understand and deal with people; salesmen, politicians, teachers, clinicians, and religious leaders exhibit this type of intelligence It is also the ability to understand and deal one s own self by identifying one s thoughts, feeling, attitudes and behaviors

14 72-Define the Interventions used in different perspectives? Answer: Psychoanalysis Free association Dream Analysis Behavioristic approach to treatment Systematic desensitization Aversive therapy Flooding and implosive therapy. Observational Learning Token Economy/ Token System: Contingency Contracting: Cognitive Approach in Behavior Modification Negative and unacceptable behavior is modified through constructive strategies. In order to modify the behavior, reinforcement techniques are used. Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy Developed by Albert Ellis (1962, 1977). Focused on altering the irrational beliefs into more acceptable way. Humanistic therapies Carl Roger s Psychotherapy: known as person- centered/client- centered therapy/ Non- directive therapy. Answer: or a group. 73-What is Social Influence? The process through which our behavior is affected by the actions of another individual 75-What is a Stereotype? Answer: A kind of schema in which beliefs and expectations about members of a group are held simply on the basis of their membership in that group. It can be both positive and negative. 79-What is industrial/organizational psychology? Answer: The branch of psychology that investigates the psychology of the workplace. Industrial/organizational psychologists use the scientific methods and knowledge for studying the affects, cognitions, and behaviors of people in the work settings. Major focus of interest is How best to fit the right person to a given job. How best to fit the job to the person 81-How sports psychology can be defined? Answer: The branch of psychology that studies, understands, describes, and predicts the impact of psychological variables on athletic and sport performance. Sport psychology is the application of the principles, knowledge, training, and understanding of psychology for the understanding of factors affecting sport performance, with an aim to improve it, and to make the sportspersons feel stronger and more confident.

15 82-What is forensic psychology? Answer: It is the area of psychology that applies psychological principles and methods to various areas of the legal system. 83-What role does psychologist play in the legal system? Answer: Assessment of the accused. Testimony. Psychological intervention for those under trial. Rehabilitation of the convicted. Research in criminal psychology: causes and contributing variables. 39- How would you define memory? Answer: Memory refers to the processes by which people and other organisms encode, store, and retrieve information. Answer: Answer: 40- What are the three main functions of Memory? Encoding Storage Retrieval 41- How Memory Storage Systems/Memory Storehouses can be categorized? Sensory Memory Short - term Memory Long - term Memory 42- What does elaborative rehearsal mean? Answer: A technique or process whereby the material to be learnt or remembered is elaborated upon in order to improve encoding of information. The information is organized in a manner easy to be stored or encoded. 51- Are the Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation different? Answer: Intrinsic motivation: Motivation from within, or Internal motivation that energizes the person to satisfy or accomplish the goal; the goal is to attain enjoyment and personal satisfaction, in

16 which no external tangible reward is involved e.g. altruistic behavior. Extrinsic motivation: Revolves around the tangible rewards such as money, social contacts. 71-How do the different perspectives view abnormality? Medical Perspective Answer: Psychological problems are caused by physiological factors. These can be the biological processes and systems, genetic factors, the nervous system and the neurotransmitters, hormonal changes, or external variables affecting the biology of a person. Psychodynamic Perspective Childhood experiences are the root cause of mental disorders. Unconscious determinants are significant. Behavioral Perspective Abnormal behavior is learned. Abnormality is a learned response. It results from our interaction with the external world. Cognitive Perspective The factors causing mental disorders are a person s cognitions, thoughts, and beliefs. Humanistic Perspective People s need to self-actualize, and their responsibility for their own actions, play a central role in abnormality behavior. Sociocultural Perspective The social set up in which one lives, the family and the people around, the society, and the culture at large are of primary importance in the onset, and later treatment, of mental illness Answer: members. 74-How we can define prejudice? Prejudice refers to the negative or positive expectations about social groups and their 76-Are Self-fulfilling prophecies the expectations? Answer: Self-fulfilling prophecies are the expectation about the occurrence of an event or behavior that increases the likelihood that the event or behavior will happen. 77-What is health psychology? Answer: The branch of psychology that focuses upon the role of psychological factors in the development and prevention of illness, in coping with disease, and in health promotion. It studies the relationship between psychological variables and well-being of a person. 78-Enlist concerns of a health psychologist?

17 Answer: A health psychologist works in the following areas: Enhancement of health Prevention of disease Treatment of disease Identification of risk factors Improvement of the health care system Shaping public opinion regarding health 80-Does consumer psychology concern consumer behavior? Answer: Consumer psychology studies consumers buying behavior and the effect of advertisement on these behaviors. Consumer psychology focuses upon consumers decision making and their behavior in the market place. It also studies the effect of advertisement on people s attitude and buying habits is an area of special interest for a consumer psychologist. 1: What is psychology? Answer: Beginning with the first psychological laboratory, founded in 1879 by German philosopher and physiologist Wilhelm Wundt, modern psychology s can be traced in many disciplines and countries. Psychology s historical perspectives and current activities lead us to define the field as the science of behavior and mental processes. It studies the way people and animals interact with the world and each other. This covers a wide range of topics. Here are few, questions they might address. Biopsychology. How do sleep, hormone levels and drugs affect our behaviour? Neuropsychology. How does our brain work? Development. Why do our abilities and behaviour change with age? Perception. What do our eyes tell our brain? Social Psychology. Why do groups of people treat each other the way they do? Abnormal Psychology. When do we decide that behaviour is "abnormal" and what causes such problems? Learning. How do our experiences influence our behaviour? Cognition. How do we remember things, solve problems and use language? Applied Psychology. How do we apply our knowledge of behaviour to everyday situations?