The Contribution of Constraint Negotiation to the Leisure Satisfaction of College Students in Campus Recreational Sports

Transcription

1 Recreational Sports Journal, 2007, 31, NIRSA Foundation The Contribution of Constraint Negotiation to the Leisure Satisfaction of College Students in Campus Recreational Sports Daniel J. Elkins, Brent A. Beggs, and Erica Choutka Satisfaction experienced during leisure activity plays an important role in continued leisure participation. Leisure participation is also affected by leisure constraints. In recent years, the idea of negotiating leisure constraints has emerged as an important area of research. The concept of constraint negotiation suggests that individuals use various methods to overcome constraints and participate in leisure activities. Although research has been done examining the leisure satisfaction of college students, as well as constraint negotiation strategies used by college students, little research has examined the role of negotiation in creating satisfying leisure experiences. The purpose of this study was to examine which type of constraint negotiation strategies contributed to satisfying leisure experiences for college students. The sample of this study consisted of college students at two midwestern universities (N = 363). Results from this study indicate that college students commonly use interpersonal relations, physical fitness, and skill acquisition negotiation strategies in order to participate in leisure activities. Additional results from multiple regression analyses suggest that the strongest predictors of leisure satisfaction are negotiation strategies that involve a social component, the practicing of a skill in order to improve, and a sense of accomplishment during participation. The findings of this study indicate that leisure satisfaction for college students may be associated with the negotiation strategies used to participate in leisure activities. Key Words: leisure satisfaction, negotiation strategies, leisure constraints, campus recreation, college students Leisure participation during the college years has been established as an important contributor to the college experience (Astin, 1993; Abrahamowicz, 1988; Kuh, 1995). One way to encourage leisure participation is by creating leisure experiences that are satisfying (Hawes, 1979; Beard & Ragheb, 1980; Searle, Mactavish, & Elkins and Beggs are with the Kinesiology and Recreation Dept., Illinois State University, Box 5121, Normal, IL; Choutka is with Campus Recreation, University of South Carolina - Columbia, 1000 Blossom Street, Columbia, SC. 107

2 108 Elkins, Beggs, and Choutka Brayley, 1993). There have been numerous studies that investigate the satisfying leisure experiences of college students. Satisfaction issues in campus recreation have been examined in relation to service quality (Osman, Cole, & Vessell, 2006) and facilities (Turman & Hendel, 2004), and results from these studies suggest that leisure satisfaction is affected by both. In addition, leisure satisfaction has been studied in regards to the quality of life of college students (Lewis, Barcelona, & Jones, 2001) and the importance that students place on sports and fitness after graduation (Forrester, Arterberry, & Barcelona, 2006). Results from these studies suggest that leisure experiences within campus recreation can increase the quality of the college experience and increase the importance that students place on sports and fitness after graduation. Another area of study that has received attention in regards to leisure participation is the leisure constraints of college students (Young, Ross, & Barcelona, 2003). Leisure constraints research has focused on factors that inhibit participation in leisure activities (Beggs, Elkins, & Powers, 2005). The concept of negotiating leisure constraints emerged in a qualitative study conducted by Jackson and Rucks (1995). This study suggested that individuals use various methods to overcome constraints in order to participate in leisure activities. Although some research has examined the constraint negotiation of college students, little research has examined the role of negotiation in creating satisfying leisure experiences. This study examined the types of constraint negotiation strategies that contribute to satisfying leisure experiences for college students. Leisure Satisfaction Leisure satisfaction is a concept with different meanings. It has been defined and studied as a concept derived from leisure participation that examines what one has done during a leisure experience (Buchanan, 1983; Hazel, Langenau, & Levine, 1990; Lounsebury & Hoopes, 1985; Mannell, 1989). Such satisfaction is based primarily on objective external factors that result from participating in the experience (Kao, 1992). Researchers have studied external factors such as social interaction, program design, recreational resources, and the impact they have on satisfying leisure experiences (Kao, 1992). However, studies involving such factors focused on specific recreation activities since factors vary by activity. Kao (1992) suggested that external factors may provide a better understanding of sources of leisure satisfaction, although internal factors can better measure leisure satisfaction. Internal factors explore an individual s positive perceptions as a result of leisure participation and the degree to which one is satisfied with leisure experiences overall (Beard & Ragheb, 1980). Beard and Ragheb (1980) developed the Leisure Satisfaction Scale (LSS), which is the most recognized and utilized study of internal factors in leisure satisfaction. The LSS has been used to measure leisure satisfaction in different age groups (Fung & Tsai, 2006; Iso-Ahola, Allen, & Buttimer, 1982; Riddick, 1986) and for other demographic variables (Mak, Parker, & Boley, 2003; Lloyd, King, Lampe, & McDougall, 2001; Ashby, Kottman, & DeGraaf, 1999; Russell, 1984; Kibler & Smith, 2000), although other studies have used the LSS in studying behavioral models of leisure (Huang & Carleton, 2003; Siegenthaler & O Dell, 2000; Ragheb & Tate, 1993; Kaufman, 1984).

3 Constraint Negotiation and Leisure Satisfaction 109 Constraint Negotiation Constraints are defined as barriers that inhibit leisure participation and can be categorized into three basic types: structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Structural constraints are concrete factors that result from external conditions in an environment, such as a lack of time to participate because of other commitments (Mannell & Kleiber, 1997). Intrapersonal constraints involve psychological attributes that interact with leisure preferences. An individual who experiences an intrapersonal constraint may choose not to participate because of a perceived lack of skill, for example. Interpersonal constraints are the results of interpersonal relationships desired for leisure participation (Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991). An individual may perceive an interpersonal constraint and not participate as a result of not having anyone with whom to participate. Although constraints inhibit leisure participation, they do not necessarily prevent it (Jackson, Crawford, & Godbey, 1993; Elkins, 2004; Beggs, Elkins, & Powers, 2005). In many instances, individuals are able to overcome or negotiate constraints in order to participate in leisure activities. Jackson and Rucks (1995) used qualitative methodology and found that junior high and high school students used various negotiation strategies in order to participate. Hubbard and Mannell (2001) developed a negotiation instrument based on the findings of Jackson and Rucks (1995) to survey employees of recreation-related companies. They also found that people used a variety of negotiation methods, and the results of their study supported a theoretical model that clarified the role of motivation in negotiation. Beggs et al. (2005) modified the Hubbard and Mannell (2001) instrument to make it more applicable to college students and examined the constraint negotiation strategies of college students in leisure activities. They developed a scale of 31 specific negotiation strategies that were subsumed under six basic negotiation strategies: time management, skill acquisition, interpersonal relations, intrapersonal validation, physical fitness, and financial management. Time management strategies referred to better planning and organization of time. Skill acquisition strategies included learning new skills and practicing. Interpersonal relations reflected strategies that involved interactions with other people. Intrapersonal validation was the degree to which an individual changed leisure aspirations. Physical fitness strategies referred to issues related to the improvement of fitness and prevention of injury, and financial management referred to strategies to improve finances in order to participate in leisure activities. Beggs et al. (2005) found that college students utilized different methods of negotiation in order to participate in leisure activities and that the most common negotiation methods they used were time management strategies. The aforementioned findings suggest that individuals use negotiation strategies in order to participate. However, previous studies failed to address whether specific negotiation strategies affected leisure satisfaction. This study examined specific negotiation strategies and their contribution to the leisure satisfaction of college students. Methods This study utilized the specific negotiation strategies developed by Beggs et al. (2005) and items from the LSS (Beard & Ragheb, 1980) to examine the extent to which the use of negotiation strategies influenced leisure satisfaction. Survey

4 110 Elkins, Beggs, and Choutka research was utilized to collect the data from two midwestern campuses with similar student profiles and similar recreational sports programs and services. Data were collected using a purposeful sample of students enrolled in courses known to be representative of the student population. At each campus, students were recruited from general education courses with students matching the profile of the student population, and with the instructor s consent. A total of 400 surveys were distributed to 8 classes over a two-week period. The instrument collected two main sources of information, which fit the purpose of this study. The first section of the instrument included Likert scale items (1 = never, 5 = very often) relative to the use of 31 negotiation strategies used to negotiate perceived constraints. These strategies are subsumed within the six categories of time management, skill acquisition, interpersonal relations, intrapersonal validation, physical fitness, and financial management. The second section of the instrument used the LSS (Beard & Ragheb, 1980), which included 24 Likert scale items (1 = never, 5 = very often) aimed at an understanding of how satisfied students were in their leisure. Multiple regression was used to analyze the degree to which the use of negotiation strategies was associated with overall leisure satisfaction. A correlation matrix of independent variables was examined to determine whether multicollinearity, or high correlations between independent variables, could affect subsequent regression analyses. According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), any predictor variables highly correlated with one another (.70 and above) can negatively affect the predictive strength of the regression equation. In addition to addressing issues of mulitcollinearity, we conducted linear regression model reduction based on pairwise correlations of the negotiation items with overall leisure satisfaction and the predictive strength and contribution of the negotiation items to the regression model. Results A total of 363 usable surveys were collected over a two-week period from participating college students. The data were analyzed descriptively in order to compute an overall leisure satisfaction score, as well as to measure the extent to which students utilized negotiation strategies to overcome perceived constraints. Cronbach s alpha coefficients indicated a strong measure of reliability for both the negotiation (.89) and satisfaction measures (.93), as well as the subscales of negotiation (each subscale >.75). Overall, the most commonly utilized negotiation categories were interpersonal relations (M = 3.36, SD = 0.61), followed by physical fitness (M = 3.30, SD = 0.83) and skill acquisition (M = 3.29, SD = 0.67). The specific negotiation strategies most utilized were I participate in activities I m good at (M = 3.85, SD = 0.89), I encourage my friends to participate with me (M = 3.82, SD = 0.96), I try to find people to participate with (M = 3.71, SD = 0.93), I m willing to participate with people I don t know (M = 3.64, SD = 0.98), and I practice so I am better (M = 3.60, SD = 0.92). See Table 1 for a breakdown of all descriptive results of negotiation categories, as well as specific negotiation strategies. Correlation analyses were conducted to measure the relationship of the negotiation variables with overall leisure satisfaction (Table 2). An overall regression equation model was significant at the.05 level [F(31,330) = 6.939, p <.001] as seen in Table 3. The R 2 value was.395, indicating that the use of negotiation strategies

5 Constraint Negotiation and Leisure Satisfaction 111 Table 1 Overall Mean Score for Negotiation Strategies Negotiation Categories and Strategies Mean SD Time-management strategies I cut short my activity session I get up earlier or stay up later I try to be better organized I cut short time for work, school, and family I schedule my classes to allow time for me to participate I cut short time for other leisure activities I ve altered the time that I would normally participate I choose to participate at times the facilities are not crowded Skill-acquisition strategies I utilize campus resources to learn what activities are offered I try to learn new skills/activities If I m not skilled, I swallow my pride and do the best I can If I m not skilled, I ask for help with the activity I practice so I am better at the activity Interpersonal relations I participate in activities with people of the same gender I try to find people to participate with I try to find someone to give me a ride I encourage my friends to participate with me I adjust my activity choice based on what my friends want to do I m willing to participate with people that I don t know Intrapersonal validation strategies I participate in activities that I am good at I purposely participate in activities that are not competitive I try to select activities where I can avoid conflict with others Physical fitness strategies I try to eat right so I feel like participating I try to sleep more so I feel like participating I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate I wear proper protective/safety equipment to prevent injury Financial management I try to budget my money so I can participate I improvise with the equipment/clothes that I have I got a job so I would have money to help me participate I borrow equipment/clothes from others so I can participate I participate in less expensive activities Note. N = 363 in the overall model explained 39.5% of variation in leisure satisfaction. A revised regression model was developed by eliminating variables that were not significantly associated with leisure satisfaction (p <.05), as well as variables not significantly contributing to the regression model, while considering the change in explained variation of leisure satisfaction. A final model (Table 4) was significant at the.05 level [F(5,356 ) = , p <.001] and explained 33.1% of the variation in leisure satisfaction. The predictor variables (negotiation strategies) in the final revised

6 112 Elkins, Beggs, and Choutka model were I encourage friends to participate with me (β = 0.234), I try to learn new skills (β = 0.203), I practice so I am better at the activity (β = 0.154), I try to eat right so I feel like participating (β = 0.124), and I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate (β = 0.118). The negotiation strategies included in the final model offered the optimal explanation of the variation in leisure satisfaction, while controlling for inflated R 2. Table 2 Correlation Coefficients of Negotiation Strategies With Leisure Satisfaction Negotiation Strategies R p I cut short my activity session I get up earlier or stay up later.161 **.002 I try to be better organized.203 ***.000 I cut short time for work, school, and family.141 **.007 I schedule my classes to allow time for me to participate.252 ***.000 I cut short time for other leisure activities.153 **.004 I utilize campus resources to learn what activities are offered.328 ***.000 I ve altered the time that I would normally participate.127 *.015 I choose to participate at times the facilities are not crowded.165 **.002 I try to eat right so I feel like participating.378 ***.000 I try to sleep more so I feel like participating.238 ***.000 I participate in activities that I am good at.274 ***.000 I try to learn new skills/activities.420 ***.000 I purposely participate in activities that are not competitive I try to select activities where I can avoid conflict with others If I m not skilled, I swallow my pride and do the best I can.223 ***.000 If I m not skilled, I ask for help with the activity.267 ***.000 I practice so I am better at the activity.379 ***.000 I participate in activities with people of the same gender.192 ***.000 I try to find people to do activities with.357 ***.000 I try to find someone to give me a ride I encourage my friends to participate with me.412 ***.000 I adjust my activity choice based on what my friends want to do I m willing to participate with people that I don t know.319 ***.000 I try to budget my money so I can participate.208 ***.000 I improvise with the equipment/clothes that I have.270 ***.000 I got a job so I would have money to help me participate.122 *.020 I borrow equipment/clothes from others so I can participate I participate in less expensive activities I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate.369 ***.000 I wear proper protective/safety equipment to prevent injury.251 ***.000 ***p <.001 ; **p <.01; * p <.05.

7 Table 3 Overall Regression Model Summary for Predicting Leisure Satisfaction Variables B SEB β t Sig Constant I cut short my activity session I get up earlier or stay up later I try to be better organized I cut short time for work, school, and family I schedule my classes to allow time for me to participate I cut short time for other leisure activities I utilize campus resources to learn what activities are offered I ve altered the time that I would normally participate I choose to participate at times the facilities are not crowded I try to eat right so I feel like participating I try to sleep more so I feel like participating I participate in activities that I am good at I try to learn new skills/activities I purposely participate in activities that are not competitive I try to select activities where I can avoid conflict with others If I m not skilled, I swallow my pride and do the best I can If I m not skilled, I ask for help with the activity I practice so I am better at the activity (continued) 113

8 Table 3 (continued) Variables B SEB β t Sig I participate in activities with people of the same gender I try to find people to do activities with I try to find someone to give me a ride I encourage my friends to participate with me I adjust my activity choice based on what my friends do I m willing to participate with people that I don t know I try to budget my money so I can participate I improvise with the equipment/clothes that I have I got a job so I would have money to help me participate I borrow equipment/clothes from others so I can participate I participate in less expensive activities I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate I wear proper protective/safety equipment to prevent injury Note: R 2 =.395; adjusted R 2 =.338; F = 6.936; p <

9 Constraint Negotiation and Leisure Satisfaction 115 Table 4 Final Revised Regression Model Summary for Predicting Leisure Satisfaction Variables B SEB β t Sig Constant <.001 I try to eat right so I feel like participating I try to learn new skills/activities <.001 I practice so I am better at the activity I encourage my friends to participate with me <.001 I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate Note: R 2 =.331; adjusted R 2 =.321; F = ; p <.001 Discussion The role of negotiation in college students satisfaction with leisure experiences is best explained using five variables: I encourage friends to participate with me (interpersonal relations), I try to learn new skills (skill acquisition), I practice so I am better at the activity (skill acquisition), I try to eat right so I feel like participating (physical fitness), and I try to improve my physical fitness so I can participate (physical fitness). It should be noted than none of these variables is subsumed in the time management negotiation category. Previous research by Jackson and Rucks (1995) and Beggs et al. (2005) identified time management strategies as the most utilized negotiation strategies in leisure participation. Although time management strategies were commonly utilized by college students in previous research, they may not necessarily contribute to satisfying leisure experiences. Encouraging friends to participate was the second most common negotiation strategy utilized, and it also contributed to the model of leisure satisfaction based on negotiation. This supports previous research that has suggested that the social component is central to leisure participation (Kyle & Chick, 2002). This finding suggests that the social component is not only an influential element in choosing to participate in leisure activities, but it is important in leisure participation resulting in a satisfying experience. Skill acquisition strategies also contributed to the model of leisure satisfaction. Learning new skills and practicing in order to be better at an activity were important elements in leisure satisfaction. These variables suggest that there is a sense of accomplishment associated with the challenge of learning and practicing a skill. Pelletier et al. (1995), found the motivation to learn is an important dimension in leisure satisfaction. Pelletier et al. (1995) also found that the sense of accomplishment that is associated with challenge in an activity results in leisure satisfaction. This finding is also supported by flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991), which suggests one of the characteristics of optimal experiences is the match between challenge and skill. If college students use the learning and practicing of skills as negotiation strategies in an effort to improve performance in challenging activities, then this may explain why skill acquisition is an important element in satisfying leisure experiences for college students.

10 116 Elkins, Beggs, and Choutka The final two variables included in the model of negotiation and leisure satisfaction involved eating right and improving physical fitness as negotiation strategies. These strategies are categorized as physical fitness strategies and may be unique to college students. These items were not included in the Hubbard and Mannell questionnaire (2001), but were introduced into the Beggs et al. (2005) negotiation instrument after pilot testing on college students. The overall use of physical fitness strategies was the second most utilized area of negotiation. As in the case of the skill acquisition variables included in the model, this may be associated with a sense of accomplishment derived from making efforts toward improving physical fitness. Research examining activities that have a physical element, such as sports participation and running, indicate that participating and training for these activities provides a sense of accomplishment that results in satisfying experiences (Pedersen, 2002; Major, 2001). The findings from this study imply that using physical fitness negotiation strategies contributes to satisfying leisure experiences. The theoretical framework that provides the best explanation for the findings of this study is self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Self-determination theory suggests that the constructs of competence and relatedness are essential for optimal experiences, as well as constructive social development and physical wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2000). This study also determined that competence, which is associated with skill acquisition strategies, and relatedness, which is associated with interpersonal relations strategies, are important in finding satisfying leisure experiences. The results of this study suggest that students may be more satisfied in their leisure using interpersonal, skill acquisition, and physical fitness strategies. Conclusion The concept of the leisure satisfaction of college students is important for campus recreational sports providers to better understand their student clients. Future research should continue to build upon an understanding of internal influences by introducing additional constructs, such as motivation, and examining their unique and collective contribution toward satisfying leisure experiences. The findings of this study indicate that consistently high levels of leisure satisfaction for college students may be associated with types of negotiation strategies used to overcome constraints and participate in leisure activities. Negotiation strategies that involve a social component are important for satisfying leisure experiences, and group and team activities provided through campus recreational sports seems to meet this need. However, campus recreational sports providers should also keep in mind that students may derive greater satisfaction from activities if they achieve a sense of accomplishment during participation. This sense of accomplishment may be cultivated through efforts to improve physical fitness as a means of increasing participation. Opportunities for such experiences are routinely provided through intramural sports and informal leisure at campus recreational facilities. A sense of accomplishment may also be gained through learning, practice, and skill improvement. Although for some individuals, new skills can be acquired through recreational sports participation, campus recreational sport providers should consider providing more instructional programs. By offering more classes and workshops designed to teach skills in sports and fitness, campus recreational sports providers may be able to enhance the leisure experiences of college students.

11 Constraint Negotiation and Leisure Satisfaction 117 References Ashby, J.S., Kottman, T., & DeGraaf, D. (1999). Leisure satisfaction and attitudes of perfectionists: Implications for therapeutic recreation professionals. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 2, Astin, A.W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Abrahamowicz, D. (1988). College involvement, perception and satisfaction: A study of membership in student organizations. Journal of College Student Development, 29, Beard, J.G., & Ragheb, M.G. (1980). Measuring leisure satisfaction. Journal of Leisure Research, 12(1), Beggs, B.A., Elkins, D.J., & Powers, S. (2005). Overcoming barriers to participation in campus recreational sports. Recreational Sports Journal, 29(2), Buchanan, T. (1983). Toward an understanding of variability in satisfactions within activities. Journal of Leisure Research, 15(1), Crawford, D.W., Jackson, E.L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchal model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). The psychology of the optimal experience. New York: Harper Collins. Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum. Elkins, D.J. (2004). Level of perceived constraints: A comparative analysis of negotiation strategies in campus recreation. Abstract from: Proquest File: Dissertation Abstracts International, (UMI No ). Forrester, S., Arterberry, C., & Barcelona, B. (2006). Student attitudes toward sports and fitness activities after graduation. Recreational Sports Journal, 30(1), Fung, L. & Tsai, E. (2006). Structural validity of leisure satisfaction scale for Hong Kong adults. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 11(2), Hawes, D.K. (1979). Satisfactions derived from leisure-time pursuits: An exploratory nationwide survey. Journal of Leisure Research, 10, Hazel, K.L., Langenau, E.E., Jr., & Levine, R.L. (1990). Dimensions of hunting satisfaction: Multiple-satisfactions of wild turkey hunting. Leisure Sciences, 12, Huang, C.Y. & Carleton, B. (2003). The relationships among leisure participation, leisure satisfaction, and life satisfaction of college students in Taiwan. Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness, 1(2), Hubbard, J. & Mannell, R.C. (2001). Testing competing models of the leisure constraint negotiation process in a corporate employee recreation setting. Leisure Sciences, 23, Iso-Ahola, S.E., Allen, J.R., & Buttimer, K.J. (1982). Experience-related factors as determinants of leisure satisfaction. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 23, Jackson, E.L., Crawford, D.W., & Godbey, G. (1993). Negotiation of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 15, Jackson, E.L., & Rucks, V.C. (1995). Negotiation of leisure constraints by junior-high and high-school students: An exploratory study. Journal of Leisure, 27, Kao, J.C. (1992). A model of leisure satisfaction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington. Kaufman, J.E. (1984). A study of leisure satisfaction, leisure participation, and patterns of leisure activity in relationship to anxiety levels in retirees. [CD-ROM]. Abstract from Proquest File, Dissertation Abstracts International, (UMI No ). Kibler, A.M., & Smith, R.W. (2000). Leisure needs and leisure satisfaction levels of adult males with HIV and AIDS. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 2, Kuh, G. (1995). The other curriculum: Out of class experiences associated with student learning and personal development. Journal of Higher Education, 66(2),

12 118 Elkins, Beggs, and Choutka Kyle, G., & Chick, G. (2002). The social nature of leisure involvement. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(4), Lewis, J.B., Barcelona, R.B., & Jones, T. (2001). Leisure satisfaction and quality of life: Issues for the justification of campus recreation. NIRSA Journal, 25(2), Lloyd, C., King, R., Lampe, J., & McDougall, S. (2001). The leisure satisfaction of people with psychiatric disabilities. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 25(2), Lounsebury, J.W., & Hoopes, L.L. (1985). An investigation of factors associated with vacation satisfaction. Journal of Leisure Research, 7(1), Major, W.F. (2001). Positive addiction and running: The views of serious runners. KAPHERD Journal, 37(2), Mak, J.Y., Parker, S.D., & Boley, B.J. (2003). The effect of sociodemographic variables on the leisure satisfaction and leisure participation of older adults. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75(1), A-23. Mannell, R.C. (1989). Leisure satisfaction. In E.L. Jackson & T.L. Burton (Eds.), Understanding leisure and recreation: Mapping the past, charting the future (pp ). State College, PA: Venture. Mannell, R.C., & Kleiber, D.A. (1997). A social psychology of leisure. State College, PA: Venture. Osman, R.W., Cole, S.T., & Vessell, C.R. (2006). Examining the role of perceived service quality in predicting user satisfaction and behavioral intentions in a campus recreational setting. Recreational Sports Journal, 30(1), Pederson, D.M. (2002). Intrinsic-extrinsic factors in sport motivation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 95(2), Pelletier, L.G., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Tuson, K.M., Briere, N.M., & Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sports Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, Ragheb, M.G., & Tate, R.L. (1993). A behavioral model of leisure participation, based on leisure attitude, motivation and satisfaction. Leisure Studies, 12, Riddick, C.C. (1986). Leisure satisfaction precursors. Journal of Leisure Research, 18(4), Russell, R.V. (1984). Correlates of life satisfaction in retirement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington. Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), Searle, M.S., Mactavish, J.B., & Brayley, R.E. (1993). Integrating ceasing participation with other aspects of leisure behavior: A replication and extension. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(4), Siegenthaler, K.L. & O Dell, I. (2000). Leisure attitude, leisure satisfaction, and perceived freedom in leisure within family dyads. Leisure Sciences, 22(4), Tabachnick, B.G. & Fidell, L.S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Turman, J.C., & Hendel, D.D. (2004). Changes in students recreation activities, satisfaction and perceived benefits following the construction of a new recreation facility. Recreational Sports Journal, 28(2), Young, S.J., Ross, C.M., & Barcelona, R.J. (2003). Perceived constraints by college students to participation in campus recreational sports programs. Recreational Sports Journal, 27(2),