Introduction PSYCHOLOGY 12 ACADEMIC

Transcription

1 Introduction PSYCHOLOGY 12 ACADEMIC 1

2 PSYCHOLOGY THE DEFINITION: The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes(mind) THE GOAL: To describe, predict, explain and control behaviour KEY QUESTIONS: How are bodily processes turned into mental awareness of the outside world? How do our minds and bodies interact? 2

3 Think/Pair/Share Question Define the word BRAIN Define the word MIND What is the difference between the two? Make a drawing to represent these ideas. 3

4 What is the Mind? In Psychology the mind refers to the mental processes and experiences that cannot be directly observed. The brain is an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull that functions as the coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity. 4

5 What is behaviour? Behaviour refers to any observable action made by a living person or animal. is best described as any kind of response that can actually be seen and measured. Examples of behaviour include: Eating Sleeping Sneezing Watching T.V. Running Marshmallow Effect Reliability Conditions 5

6 What is Behaviour? Consider each activity listed below and state whether or not you think it is a behaviour. Experiencing butterflies in the stomach Dreaming Blinking Heartbeat Toothache Planning an excuse to get out of a date Singing a song aloud Writing a letter Experiencing an itch Reading the time on your watch 6

7 How do psychologists study the mind? If we were to split open the skull of a willing volunteer and have a look inside, we would only see the grey matter of the brain. We cannot see someone thinking. Nor can we observe their emotions, or memories, or perceptions and dreams. 7

8 Psychology relies on inferences, or assumptions, about thoughts and emotions in the mind on the basis of observable behaviour. An inference is a logical conclusion which is based on available evidence. For example we cannot see happiness in a person s mind, we can only see behaviours we associate with happiness Smiling, laughing, open eyes, relaxed posture etc and then we infer that that person is happy. 8

9 What can we measure Brain Scans can show that a person is thinking or experiencing emotion but can t describe WHAT they are thinking and feeling. Memories 9

10 So, how do psychologists study the mind? In fact, psychologists adopt a similar approach to scientists in other fields Amy and Sheldon, Amy Nuclear physicists interested in the structure of atoms cannot observe protons, electrons and neutrons directly. Instead, they predict how these elements should behave and devise experiments to confirm or refute their expectations. 10

11 Human behaviour: The raw data of psychology In a similar way, psychologists use human behaviour as a clue to the workings of the mind. Although we cannot observe the mind directly, everything we do, think, feel and say is determined by the functioning of the mind. So psychologists take human behaviour as the raw data for testing their theories about how the mind works. Amy, 11

12 Now we are going to do a simple activity involving letters of the alphabet. Based on your gut feelings, quickly write down: Your six FAVOURITE letters Your six LEAST FAVOURITE letters 12

13 Look over each list and circle all of the letters that occur in your own first name. Count the number of circled letters in each list. Which list included more of the letters from your own first name?? 13

14 The preference for the letters in one s own name is the name letter effect. Real Life Application : Would people be more likely to purchase a product if the product resembled his or her name? 14

15 Which center circle is larger? 15

16 Here are the same circles again. 16

17 Do you see the flashing dots? The flashing is all in your head. 17

18 DESSERT ACTIVITY 18

19 If you could only pick one dessert to have for the rest of your life, which one (and only one) would you pick? Based on your selection, personality psychologists can identify key characteristics about your personality. Your choices are: 19

20 Strawberry short cake Chocolate chip cookies Brownies Sorbet Cheesecake Pudding Cake Ice cream Pie (any flavour) 20

21 Strawberry shortcake Romantic, warm, loving. You care about other people, can be counted on in a pinch and expect the same in return. You can be very emotional. You are a friend for life! But look out if someone screws you over. You can hold a grudge. 21

22 Chocolate chip cookies Sexy; always ready to give and receive. Very creative, adventurous, ambitious, and passionate. You can appear to have a cold exterior but are warm on the inside. Not afraid to take chances. You will not settle for anything average in life. Love to laugh. 22

23 Brownies You like sports, whether it be baseball, football, or basketball. If you could, you would like to participate, but you enjoy watching sports. You don t like to give up the remote control. You tend to be self centred and high maintenance. 23

24 Sorbet Sweet, loving, cuddly. You love all warm and fuzzy items. A little nutty at times. Sometimes you need an ice cream cone at the end of the day. Others perceive you as being childlike and immature at times. 24

25 Cheesecake Smooth, sexy, and articulate with your hands, you are an excellent after dinner speaker and a good teacher. But don t try to walk and chew gum at the same time. A bit of a diva at times, but you have many friends. 25

26 Pudding You are adventurous, love new ideas, and are a champion of underdogs and a slayer of dragons. When tempers flare up you whip out your sabre. You are always the oddball with a unique sense of humour and direction. You tend to be very loyal. 26

27 Cake Fun-loving, sassy, humorous, not very grounded in life; very indecisive and lack motivation. Everyone enjoys being around you, but you are a practical joker. Others should be cautious in making you mad. However, you are a friend for life. 27

28 Ice cream You are a very fun loving person, who likes to laugh. You are fun to be with. People like to hang out with you. You are a very warm hearted person and a little quirky at times. You have many loyal friends. 28

29 Was the description accurate or inaccurate? Why could this be? Does this make it hard to know if the prediction was right? 29

30 Pie You are a terrible person. No one likes you. Sure, a few people act as if they like you, but they only hang out with you to make fun of you. Turns out, you aren t that attractive either. Stay in college as long as you can because no one would hire you anyway. Your magic number is...let s be honest...you have no magic in your life. That makes your magic number zero. Loser. 30

31 In the context of these personality descriptions, the general statements work and seem believable because they are positive. If the feedback were negative it becomes less credible. 31

32 The Barnum Effect Barnum Effect : is a term that is used in psychology. It is the tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate. A good example of this can be seen when people believe what is said about them in psychometric tests, personality profiles, astrological predictions, and so on. 32

33 Can Animals Think? Dogs and Love 33

34 HISTORY Prescientific Psychology Crash Course 34

35 Rene Descartes ( ) 1. Viewed mind and the body as interactive machines a. mind could influence the body and vice versa b. allowed for both voluntary and involuntary behavior 2. Ruled out organs other than the brain (e.g., the heart) as locations of mental functioning 3. Human minds consisted of two kinds of ideas a. Innate ideas (belief in "God, ideas we are born with ) b. Derived ideas (all ideas acquired through experience or reflection) 35

36 John Locke ( ) 1. Empiricist approach-knowledge should be acquired by careful observation 2. Opposed notion of innate ideas-he believed that all ideas come from experience or reflection we are not born with them 3. Mind is a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) written on by experience 36

37 Types of Psychologists Video 37

38 Academic 1. Employed in college/university settings 2. Primary responisibilities include teaching, research and writing but may also include consulting, practice and administration 38

39 Researchers 1. Employed by industry, business and the government 2. Examine diverse phenomena. Examples: a. The effects of coffee breaks on work productivity b. Optimal training procedures for a specific job c. Ways to change behaviors that would prevent the spread of HIV 39

40 Developmental Psychologists: Experimental psychologists who typically research behavior changes occurring across the lifespan that are due to maturation and development 40

41 Practitioner 1. Provide services such as therapy, counseling and consulting 2. May also conduct research 41

42 Kinds of Practioners A. Clinical Psychologists: 1. Largest group of practitioners 2. Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders 3. Duties include psychological testing, interviewing and therapy B. Counseling Psychologists: 1. Often work with clientele whose problems are of a moderate degree 2. Many counseling psychologists specialize in marital or family counseling 42

43 C. School Psychologists: 1. Concerned with social, intellectual and emotional development of elementary and secondary students 2. Work with children, parents and teachers 3. Often test students for special programs D. Educational Psychologists: Involved in teacher training, curriculum design and other related educational processes 43

44 E. Industrial/Organizational Psychologists: 1. Work in business and industry 2. Attempt to improve productivity 3. May develop employee selection programs, work with advertisers, study consumer behavior or design equipment F. Experimental Psychologists: 1. Broad classification for laboratory researchers 2. Work primarily in a specific area, such as memory, language or animal behavior 44

45 G. Social Psychologists: 1. Experimental psychologists who study social situations 2. Study topics such as conformity, obedience and leadership style 45

46 III. Perspectives in Psychology 46

47 What are Psychological Perspectives These are the different APPROACHES psychologists use to explain behaviour 47

48 A. Behavioural Approach All behaviour is LEARNED through experience. This explanation is also called Learning Theory. In Psychology learning is called CONDITIONING. 48

49 Behaviourists study animal behaviour and then apply this to humans. They are interested in STIMULUS and RESPONSE experiments or how do animals react to certain situations. Conditioning and Humans 49

50 B. Biological Approach Human Behavior is understood by describing underlying biochemical and neurological causes in the body Reductionistic: Observable behaviors reduced to physiological explanations The brain and mind are the same thing 50

51 Biological Approach All behaviour normal and abnormal, is based in physiological/ bodily processes, especially in the brain 013/02/13/dr-lin---the-physiology-of-love/ lipid= Ao 51

52 C. Psychoanalytic Approach Developed by Sigmund Freud Human behavior primarily determined by unconscious processes Theory not based on experimental evidence but by analyzing conversations with patients many aspects of this theory therefore are untestable 52

53 Psychoanalytic Theory The theory explains human development in terms of an innate drive (something we are born with e.g. pleasure) and early experience (the extent to which the desires were gratified) 53

54 D. Cognitive Approach Cognitive psychologists study thoughts and mental processes They have made significant contributions in the areas of language, thought and memory Prominent figures include Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky 54

55 Cognitive /Information Processing Theory Cognitive Psychologists believe that internal, mental processes that can explain behaviour Began in the 1950s around the time of the first computers 55

56 Examples of processes Memory Attention Thinking Perception Information processing 56

57 E. Humanistic Approach Emerged in the 1950s Viewed behavior as a product of free will and opposed the determinism of behaviorism and psychoanalysis In other words humanists believe that while stimuli in the environment and our past experiences influence our behaviour Individuals still CONTROL their own choices in the ways that they choose to behave. Believed too much emphasis placed on "rat studies" in the understanding of human behavior 57

58 Emphasized the inherent goodness of human beings Developed methods of psychotherapy consistent with their views Prominent figures include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow 58

59 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE

60 Nature People behave the way they do because they are animals who act in accordance with their animal instincts and are determined by their biology.

61 Nurture People behave the way they do because they are determined by the things other people teach them, the things they observe around them, and because of the different situations they are put in.

62 RESEARCH METHODS 62

63 RESEARCH METHODS Experiments lab & field. Questionnaires self reporting, open & closed questions. Interviews structured & unstructured. Observations overt, covert, participant observation & non-participant observation. Types of studies case studies, correlation studies, longitudinal studies. 63

64 I. The Experiment: The only research method capable of showing cause and effect Includes A. Hypothesis 1. A statement about the relation between two or more variables 2. Must be testable and verifiable B. Independent variable: Variable manipulated by the experimenter C. Dependent variable: Measured variable influenced by the independent variable 64

65 D. Experimental group: Group that receives the treatment E. Control group: Group that does not receive treatment (or receives a treatment presumed to be ineffective, e.g., placebo) 1. Serves as the basis for comparison of results from the experimental group 2. Also serves to eliminate alternative explanations of the results 65

66 F. Population: The large group of people or animals from which samples are drawn G. Sample: The set of subjects drawn from particular population for a particular study 66

67 Laboratory experiments Take place in a controlled environment. Stops extraneous variables such as noise, lighting or heat which could affect the participant s response. Usually used for Memory and Perception. 67

68 Field Experiments Takes place in real or natural environment. Social psychologists prefer to do research in this way if possible because participants are not aware of that the situations have been set up and change their reactions to suit the experiment. 68

69 Activity What type of experiment is this? Asch Gender Roles Elevator conformity Marshmallow Effect Reliability Conditions Dolls BBC New Stanford 69

70 Survey Methods Methods used to measure attitudes, motives, opinions and so on. Self-reported data: this must be interpreted cautiously since the honesty of the subjects is always a factor in the results Easily biased 1. A small return rate of a survey virtually ensures a sample that is not representative 2. Phrasing of the questions may affect respondents' answers 70

71 Questionnaires One type of self report method. Consist of pre-set questions. Same for everyone in the sample. Can use open or closed questions 71

72 Closed Questions Questions which have a set number of possible answers - multiple choice - rating scales Disgusting Bad OK Quite nice Excellent Open Questions In depth answers. The participants choose their own response. 72

73 Strengths Questionnaires + Can be used to access people s thoughts and feelings. + All ps are asked the same set of questions so researchers can look for patterns & trends + Easy to administer to a large sample quickly Weaknesses - Ps may lie or exaggerate as there is no one to check their responses. - Unreliable ps might misunderstand the questions. In closed questionnaires they might not be able to give the answer they want. - Do not account for individual differences. By asking everybody the same questions, researchers cannot explore individual answers. 73

74 Activity You are researchers and you are trying to find out about people s music preferences. In pairs, design a questionnaire that includes 2 open and 2 closed questions based on. When you have done this, find another pair who have finished and swap questionnaires. 74

75 Interviews Another type of self report method. Face to face, directly to the interviewee. Questions are usually opened rather than closed. 2 main types of interviews: * Structured * Unstructured Predetermined No set questions Everyone has the same set of questions based on interviewee s answers. Like a conversation. 75

76 Evaluation of Interviews Strengths + used to access people s thoughts and feelings. + both interviewee and researcher can double check either a question or a response. Weaknesses - No way of checking for truth: lie, exaggerate, socially desirable responses. - Rely on the ability of ps explaining their thoughts & feelings. 76

77 Naturalistic Observation Researcher observes and records behaviour in a natural setting Typically, behavior is not interfered with or altered by the researcher. 77

78 Observations Overcome the problems of self report methods. Although often part of an experiment, they can take place in people s natural environment. Many types of observations: Covert observations Overt observations Participant observations Non-participant observations 78

79 Overt observations: Participants are aware that they are being observed. Covert observations: Participants are unaware that they are being observed. Participant observations: Researcher participates with the group he/she is studying. Non-participant observations: Researcher observes from a distance and does not interfere. 79

80 What type of observation are each of these? Zimbardo (1971). 80

81 Activity In groups of no more than 5, make up a study that could be used to demonstrate either: 1) Overt non-participation 2) Covert participation Discuss as a class. 81

82 Types of Studies 1.Case studies Used for unstructured interviews and observations. Can be an individual or group. Usually involves an in-depth analysis of the individual or group under investigation. E.g. Genie 82

83 B. Correlation Studies Can collect data through questionnaires, structured interviews and observations. Correlation studies focus on the analysis of data, rather than how it is collected. Used to look for relationships or associations between variables. 83

84 Helpful in studying topics, such as spouse or child abuse, where experimental methods (e.g., randomly selecting subjects and instructing them to behave in abusive ways) would be unethical Does not establish cause and effect just the relationship between 2 variables. 84

85 There are three possible results of a correlational study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. Negative correlation No Correlation Positive Correlation More of one, less of the other No relationship More of one, more of the other 85

86 Examples: Negative Correlation: 1. Education and years in jail-people who have more years of education tend to have fewer years in jail (or phrased as people with more years in jail tend to have fewer years of education) 2. Crying and being held-among babies, those who are held more tend to cry less (or phrased as babies who are held less tend to cry more) 86

87 hods.net/kb/statcorr.php Positive Correlation: Happiness and helpfulness as people s happiness level increases, so does their helpfulness (conversely, as people s happiness level decreases, so does their helpfulness) Education level and income: the more years of schooling people have, the more money they make. 87

88 C. Longitudinal Studies Conducted over long periods of time. Very useful for studying psychological development. - Time consuming - Expensive - Ps in the original study might drop out - 7 UP - 21 UP - 49 UP 88

89 D. Cross Sectional Studies Because of the problems of a longitudinal study, some researchers prefer to use a cross-sectional study. Instead of studying one group of people over a long period of time, the researcher uses two groups to represent the different stages that are being studied. - Because the researcher is not using the same group of people, individual differences are ignored. 89

90 The STROOP EFFECT SAY THE COLOUR OF THE WORDS IN THE NEXT SLIDE. 90

91 GREEN BLUE YELLOW BLACK BLUE YELLOW RED WHITE GREEN RED 91

92 BLACK BLUE RED YELLOW ORANGE GREEN PURPLE GREEN BLACK YELLOW 92

93 STROOP EFFECT The interference between the different information (what the words say and the color of the words) your brain receives causes a problem. The words themselves have a strong influence over your ability to say the color. There are two theories that may explain the Stroop effect: Speed of Processing Theory: the interference occurs because words are read faster than colors are named. Selective Attention Theory: the interference occurs because naming colors requires more attention than reading words. 93

94 The Stroop Test is used to measure selective attention, cognitive flexibility and processing speed. It's often used to evaluate the brain's executive functioning. People with brain damage, dementia, ADHD or a variety of mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression have lower scores. 94

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