SPORT SCIENCE & PRACTICE

Transcription

1 Scientific Journal ISSN SPORT SCIENCE & PRACTICE The Journal publishes original scientific and professional papers, review articles and patents from the following areas: Sports Theory Sports training Sports medicine Sports Psychology Sports sociology Biomechanics Methodology Kinesitherapy Management in sports Recreation Fitness and wellness Pre-school sports

2 The scientific journal SPORT SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, founded in 2009 by decision of the Board of Directors of the College of Sports and Health from Belgrade Editor-in-chief Prof. Ljubiša Lazarević, Ph.D. Editor Ana Krstić, M.Sc. College of Sports and Health Technical Editor Prof. Marijana Mladenović, Ph.D. College of Sports and Health ISSN Editorial board Miladin Radisavljević Igor Jukić Christos Kolais Branislav Pokrajac Frank Dick Slobodan Živanić Joanis Kafentarakis Dane Korica Mirjana Petković Nebojša Arsenijević Zlatko Ahmetović Radenko Krulj Saša Jakovljević Nenad Živanović Sretenka Dugalić Aleksandar Milojević Nenad Trunić Marijana Mladenović Nenad Dikić Nenad Havelka Milivoje Karalejić Aleksandar Naumovski Coordinator Snežana Lazarević, M.A. Assistant director, College of Sports and Health Editing and proofreading Nada Šironja, B.A. Translation into English Elizabeta Holt, M.A. College of Sports and Health Published by DTA Belgrade Circulation 200 copies Copyright 2011 by VSZŠ All rights reserved

3 Scientific Journal SPORT Science & Practice Vol. 2, 4 June, Contents THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS Milenko Milošević, Radomir Mudrić, Miloš Mudrić... 5 INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE- SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS Žarko Popović, Marijana Mladenović THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS Milija Ljubisavljević, Mića Jotić, Dušan Kilibarda ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 Vladan Marković THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS Еmiliја Mаrkоvić, Mоmir Grаhоvаc, Dаnicа Piršl BALANCE, SPACE AND TIME AS SEGMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF THE COORDINATION ABILITIES OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS Nenad Trunić Book review: N. HAVELKA & Lj. LAZAREVIĆ - Psychology of Management in Sports Marijana Mladenović Book review: R. ILIĆ - The Economy of Sports Organizations Milko Cupara... 75

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5 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Scientific paper THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS UDK Milenko Milošević 1 Police Academy, Belgrade, Serbia Radomir Mudrić College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia Miloš Mudrić Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract: Today, karate belongs to the group of attractive and affirmed sports events throughout the world. It abounds with a variety of techniques which are realized with the feet and hands, in defense and in attack. The paper discusses one of the most popular techniques, a front kick (mae geri), viewed from the biomechanical and biodynamic aspects. The aim of this paper is to resolve the problem of the individual quantifying of educational training aims in karate according to the time of realization, speed, acceleration, force, speed of generating force and speed of including muscle motor units which are involved in carrying out certain karate techniques, as well as a choice of the best methods for education and training. This problem was solved on the example of mae geri, by using the kinematic, dynamic, numeric and anthropometric methods as well as the Belt method. The obtained results were compared with external and internal criteria of validity, that is, with the data which produce a kinematic and dynamic model of a karate champion and the way of generating force of the observed karateka in an isometric work regime for the hip flexor, knee quadriceps and right foot. From comparing two types of kinematic data, it can be seen that the analyzed competitor slowly lifts his thigh high above in comparison with the karate champion model, and that the time of that part of mae geri can be reduced by 0.300s or even 0.600s, and the carrying out of the entire mae geri kick from 0.240s to 0.180s. 1 * mlsvc2010@gmail.com + 5

6 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 From comparing the dynamic analysis data of the mae geri realization and the data obtained by the isometric measuring of force, it can be seen that in the analyzed karateka the right hip flexor and the right knee quadriceps during the mae geri are produced by higher forces in a short time period in comparison with the level and type of production of the same muscle groups in the isometric work regime. The right foot quadriceps generates a lower level of force in the realization of the mae geri in comparison with the isometric level, while in the mae geri kick the time of generating force is significantly shorter. From the obtained force-time functions, it is easy to calculate for each muscle group how the level of force and speed of its generating is calculated in the mae geri with a reducing of segment time and due to a reduction of the total time of realization of the mae geri, which, along with other data, is sufficient for every coach to make an individual quantification of educational training aims and a valid choice of educational training methods for improving the mae geri kick. Key words: mae geri, karate champion model, segment speeds and accelerations, the speed of including motor units, the speed of generating force INTRODUCTION There is a constant effort (Milosevic, Gavrilovic & Ivancevic, 1989; Milošević, Jovanović, Arlov, Blagojević & Dopsaj, 1996; Milošević, Laparidis, Dopsaj, Arlov & Blagojević, 1997; Milošević, Mudrić, Dopsaj, Blagojević & Papadimitriou, 2004; Mudrić, Milošević & Jovanović, 2004; Zatsiorsky, 2000), for the educational training process in karate to become maximally controlled and conceived according to all the demands of sports contests. One of the key problems is a individual quantifying of educational training aims according to the time of realization, speed, acceleration, force, the speed of generating force and speed of including the muscle motor units which participate in the carrying out of certain techniques, as well as the choice of the best education and training methods in order to realize the quantified aims which would help, in the shortest time period, to realize quantified aims by using sufficient amounts of data measurements. One of the objectives of this paper is to determine sufficient kinematic and dynamic data based on which educational training aims can be quantified and a choice of appropriate educational training methods chosen, based on the technique of a front kick (mae geri), carried out with the right foot of a top karate expert, and by using the appropriate methodology. To this aim, the mechanical (kinematic and dynamic) characteristics of the mae geri kick were determined, as well as the links between the traits and the possibility of changes of every trait for the observed competitor by using kinematic and dynamic analyses. Following that, numerical analyses were used to estimate 6 +

7 M. Milošević, R. Mudrić, M. Mudrić: THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS the forces which generate individual muscle groups in the carrying out of mae geri, the speed of its generating as well as the force-time function for every muscle group. The obtained data was compared with external and internal criteria (Milošević et al. 1996, 1997; Milošević, Takač, Cvjetković & Jovanović, 1998, 2004; Milošević, 2010), that is, with the data produced by the kinematic and dynamic karate champion model (Milošević et al., 1996) and the way of generating force of the observed karateka in the isometric work regime - for the hip flexor, the knee quadriceps and the right foot quadriceps. The data obtained from all the analyses enables every coach to individually quantify educational training aims and make a valid choice of the educational training method, which was also one of the aims of this paper. METHOD All the measurements were done on top competitors, 29 years of age, cm tall and 90 kg in weight, the right leg height being cm, the length of the right foot 27.6 cm, volume of the right thigh 68.0 cm and volume of the right calf 40.6 cm. The maximum force and time of generating force of the hip joint flexor was N during 0.781s. The highest speed of inclusion of motor units of 7.1 index units (IU) was achieved during s at the level of the generated force of N; N of the right knee quadriceps during s, with the highest speed of inclusion of motor units of 5.91 IJ achieved during s and during a generated level of force of N; the foot, N during s with the highest speed of inclusion of motor units of 2.43 IJ achieved during s with a generated level of force of N. For the carrying out of the experiment and all the analyses, a specially constructed hardware/software system was used. The Belt method was used to measure isometric force (Milosevic, 1989, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2002; Mudric et al., 2003, 2004). Morphological measurements were carried out according to the method recommended by the International Biological Program (Weiner & Lourie, 1969). A video system (100 shots per second) was used to record the free realization of a right mae geri kick from the left position, without hitting any kind of surface, on a acknowledged signal, unconditionally in a sagittal plane. The carrying out of the mae geri kick was done three times and the final analyses (kinematic, dynamic, neuro-physiological) were carried out for the best attempt. Some 21 figurative and 14 representative points were taken from the video record, based on which the kinetic and dynamic characteristics (Milosevic, 1989, 1996; Zatsiorsky, 2000) of the given technique were modeled and described with the following polynomial form: Y = a 0 + a 1 X + a 2 X a n X n + 7

8 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 where: Y is the course expressed in meters (m) of the following center of gravity in the model: foot TS(s), calf TP(s), thigh TN(s) and the common center of gravity ZT(s); the speed expressed in meters per second (m/s) in the foot TS(v), calf TP(v), thigh TN(v) and the common center of gravity ZT(v); acceleration expressed in meters per second (m/s 2 ) in the foot TS(a), calf TP(a), thigh TN(a), common center of gravity (a); and at the end, force in newtons (N), the speed of creating BGF force in newtons (N/s) in: the foot quadriceps (OS), knee quadriceps (OK), hip flexors (PK), the common effect for all three groups (ZT), the strength of the kick expressed in watts (W), and the X time of realizing the techniques in seconds (s); a 0, a 1, a 2,...a n, the coefficients of polynomials. First defined was the general model of the mae geri kick by way of a polynomial of the 6th order from which all calculations are derived (Milosevic, 1989, 1996). In the above defined general polynomial function, only the distance data are entered, and the speed and acceleration are calculated as their derivation according to time (first and second order). To determine the mass (in kg) of the leg segments, the 16-segment model of Zatsiorsky and Selianov was used. From the obtained data on mass, fitting by way of the least square method for all muscle groups which participate in the carrying out of mae geri, the forces in the function of time were calculated (Milošević, 2000, 2002); as well as twitches (the speed of generating force) (Milošević, 2000, 2002), as their derivations according to time and the force-speed relation, for certain segments or the entire mae geri (Mudric et al., 2003). Furthermore, from the obtained data for force and time, the speed of including motor units (Milosevic, et al., 1997, 1998, 2010) for each F t according to the following formula was calculated: C = - (1/t) * ln ((1 - F t /F max )) where F t is the level of 1%, 2%,..., 99% of the maximum force expressed in N; F max the maximum force generated by the hip joint flexors, the knee and feet quadriceps in the carrying out of mae geri expressed in N; C a constant which represents the speed of the inclusion of motor units expressed in index units (IU); t the time during which an appropriate level of maximum speed is expressed in seconds (s). A cluster analysis determined the motor unit classes (Milošević et al., 1998, 2010) according to the level of generating force for all muscle groups which participate in the carrying out of mae geri. For the needs of this paper, analyzed were only the maximum kinematic and dynamic measurements, as well as the force-time relation for all the muscle groups on the segment level and the level of carrying out the entire mae geri. 8 +

9 M. Milošević, R. Mudrić, M. Mudrić: THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS RESULTS Basic measurements obtained by a kinematic analysis of the mae geri kick: The time of carrying out the mae geri is 0.240s; The maximum speed of carrying out the mae geri is 4.95 m/s; The maximum strength of carrying out the mae geri amounts to 9477 W; The segment time of the thigh under the impact of the hip flexor force during the mae geri is 0.140s; The common time of the movement of the thigh and feet during the mae geri is s; The time segment of the calf movement under the impact of the knee quadriceps during the mae geri is s; The time segment of foot movement under the impact of the force of the foot quadriceps during the mae geri is s; The maximum segment speed of the movement of the thigh under the force of the hip flexor is 4.4 m/s and is achieved in 0.050s; The maximum segment acceleration of the movement of the thighs under the force of the hip flexor is 88.0 m/s 2 and is achieved in 0.050s; The maximum segment speed of the movement of the calf under the impact of the force of the hip flexor and the knee quadriceps is 9.1 m/s and is achieved in 0.200s; The maximum segment acceleration of the movement of the calf under the impact of the force of the hip flexor and the knee quadriceps is m/s 2 and is achieved in 0.050s after the inclusion of the foot quadriceps; The maximum segment speed of the movement of the foot under the impact of the force of the hip flexor, the knee quadriceps and the foot quadriceps is 17.3 m/s and is achieved in 0.210s; The maximum segment acceleration of the movement of the foot under the impact of the force of the hip flexor, the knee and foot quadriceps is m/s 2 and is achieved in ms after the inclusion of the foot quadriceps. Basic measurements obtained by a dynamic analysis of the mae geri kick: - The hip joint flexors are included in the work from the start of carrying out mae geri and are brought in at 0.140s of its realization. + 9

10 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 The maximum force which is generated by the hip joint flexors is N. The time during which maximum force is generated is 0.050s. The maximum speed of generating the force of hip joint flexors is N/s. The maximum speed of including the hip flexor motor units is 8 IJ. - Knee joint quadriceps are brought in to work at s in carrying out the mae geri kick, and are discontinued at 0.200s of its realization. The maximum speed which is generated by the knee joint quadriceps is N. The time during which maximum force is generated is 0.107s after the bringing into work. The maximum speed of generating the force of the knee joint quadriceps is N/s. The maximum speed of bringing into work the knee quadriceps motor units is 7.5 IJ. - The foot quadriceps are brought into work at s of the realization of the mae geri kick and are discontinued at 0.240s when the mae geri realization is completed. The maximum force which is generated by the foot quadriceps is N. The time during which maximum speed is generated is s after the discontinuation. The maximum speed of generating the force of the foot quadriceps is N/s. The maximum speed of including the foot quadriceps motor units is 3.4 IJ. Relation of force-time in the carrying out of the mae geri kick: In[5]:= F(OS) = Fun [ , , , , , ] Out[5]= t t t t t5 In[6]:= F(OK) = Fun [974.4, , , , , , ] Out[6]= t t t t t t6 In[6]:= F(PK) = Fun [ , , , , , , ] Out[6]= t t t3 I t t t6 In[6]:= F(ZT) = Fun [ , , , , , 41.0, ] Out[6]= t t t3 I t t t6 10 +

11 M. Milošević, R. Mudrić, M. Mudrić: THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS DISCUSSION From the kinematic analysis data, we can see that the observed competitor slowly lifts his thigh high above and that in relation to the model characteristics of a karate champion (Milošević et al., 1996), the time of this part of the mae geri kick can be shortened by 300 or even 600ms. This segment of the mae geri kick conditions a lower speed of the calf, the feet and the common center of gravity and a significantly longer carrying out of the entire mae geri. Educational aims can be quantified from this data (Milošević, 2010). In all muscle groups which participate in the carrying out of the mae geri kick, force reaches its maximum at the beginning of work, that is, in the time period of 50ms, 0.107s and s after their activation, following which it starts to decrease. The thigh, the calf and foot in that interval achieve the greatest accelerations. After that, the mentioned segments continue to move by inertia and the force of the current muscle groups decreases to a level which is a little over the force which is obtained if the total weight of the leg, the sum weight of the calf and foot or the weight of the foot is multiplied by Nevertheless, the speed of the calf and the foot increases, after the including of the knee quadriceps muscle and the foot quadriceps 2 due to the summing up of the created forces, first the two and then all three muscle groups. The hip flexor and the knee quadriceps in the mae geri kick produce more force within a short time, in comparison to the level and the time of the work of the same muscle groups in the isometric work regime. Foot quadriceps generate a lower level of force in the carrying out of the mae geri kick in relation to the isometric level, but the time of generating force is significantly shorter in the mae geri kick. We analyzed the mae geri kick which is carried out freely without hitting any kind of surface. When this kick is performed on some kind of piece of equipment (punching bag) or an opponent, the foot quadriceps are activated earlier and generate far greater amounts of force. This is done not to speed up the kick but to protect the ankle joint from injury during the thrust (Milosevic, 1989), which would have occurred if the experimental conditions were differently defined. The level and speed of generating force (Milosevic et al., 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002), among other things, also depends on the speed of including the motor units of the current muscle groups (the zone in which there is an intensive regulating of speed of creating force and the speed of including motor units in the isometric work regime, with the hip flexor generating 40% do 60% of the maximum force; the knee quadriceps from 30% do 40% and the foot quadriceps from 40% do 90%) (Milosevic et al., 1997, 1998, 2000). 2 The speed of the calf increases from 4.4 m/s to 9.1 m/s, and the speed of the foot from 8.9 m/s to 17.3 m/s. + 11

12 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Unlike in isometric conditions, in the carrying out of the mae geri kick, all muscle groups have a greater speed of inclusion of motor units at a significantly greater level of produced force. The higher the speed of including motor units is (a larger number of included motor units in a shorter time), the higher is the level and speed of generating force. Considering that three muscle groups participate in the carrying out of the mae geri kick, and that each muscle group must in a given period develop the given amount of force (Milošević, 1998, 2004, 2010; Mudric et al., 2003, 2004), in order for the carrying out of mae geri to meet the demands defined by the aims of training (Milošević, 2010) and considering that every muscle group has its own and diverse regime for creating force in time (Milošević, 2002), then, in order for mae geri to have the given speed, timeliness and precision, it is necessary to coordinate the work of motor units of all muscles according to the demands defined by training aims (Milošević, 1998, 2002, 2004, 2010; Mudric et al., 2003, 2004; Zatsiorsky, 2000). This practically means that on the neural level (Milošević, 2002, 2010; Mudric et al., 2003, 2004), the number of motor units per muscle, their arrangement and time of inclusion and exclusion, as well as the level of force generated at a given moment should be determined, in order to achieve the given speed, that is, the given time of carrying out the mae geri kick. The strength of the carrying out of the mae geri kick increases, considering that the mass of extremity remains unchanged, due to the increase of segment speed and the total speed of carrying out the mae geri kick. Segment speeds and the total speed of carrying out the mae geri kick also increase due to an increase of the level of maximum force, every muscle group in its carrying out and due to the shortening of time of its generating which is lower than the time in a measured front kick. CONCLUSION An experimental testing of the mae geri kick on a top karate expert was done by applying biomechanical, anthropometrical and numerical methods with the aim to secure sufficient data to validly and simply quantify educational training aims and carry out a choice of the best methods. Kinematic analysis data points to the fact that the observed competitor slowly lifts his thigh high above, in comparison to the carrying out and application of the same kick of some karateka, as well as that, in relation to a karate champion model, the observed competitor can shorten that part of the mae geri kick by or as much as 0.600s. Also, this part of the realization of the mae geri conditions a lower speed of the calf, foot and common center of gravity and a significantly longer realization of the entire mae geri. 12 +

13 M. Milošević, R. Mudrić, M. Mudrić: THE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF THE KARATE KICK (MAE GERI) IN THE FUNCTION OF DEFINING EDUCATIONAL TRAINING AIMS AND METHODS Dynamic and isometric analysis data point to the fact that in the realization of the mae geri kick all the muscle groups have a greater speed of inclusion of motor units at a significantly higher level of produced force. The hip flexor and knee quadriceps produce more force in a shorter period of time in relation to the level and the time, and the productions of the same muscle groups in an isometric work regime. The foot quadriceps generate a lower level of force in realizing the mae geri kick in comparison to the isometric level, as the time of generating force in the mae geri kick is far shorter. Significant for practice are the functions and data of all the analyses, as the training aims can be quantified on the basis of this data and functions, as well as the best methods of education and training chosen, in order for the data which describes the mae geri kick of the observed competitor to correspond in the shortest time possible with the karate champion model. + 13

14 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o REFERENCES 1. Milošević, M., Gavrilović, P., & Ivančević, V. (1989). Modeliranje i upravljanje sistemom samoodbrane. Beograd: Naučna knjiga. 2. Milošević, M., Jovanović, S., Arlov, D., Blagojević, M. & Dopsaj, M. (1996). The methodology of assessing the adoption of motoric programs in special physical education. Proceedings of International Congress on Sport Psychology, Komotini, Greece. 3. Milošević, M., Takač, M., Laparidis, C., Dopsaj, M., & Blagojević, M. (1997). The structural change of leg extensor muscle involvement speed indicators influenced by eight-mont strength training. XVII PanAmerican Congress of Sports Medicine & XII Brazilia Congress of Sports Medicine, 7-10 May, Gramado, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, Milošević, M., Laparidis, C., Dopsaj, M., Arlov, D., & Blagojević, M. (1997). The analysis of changes of muscle involment velocity characteristich of leg extensors bi linear and nonlinear methods. Exercise & Society Journal of sports science, 17 Suppl 168: Milošević, M., Takač, M., Cvjetković, M., & Jovanović, B. (1998). Force distribution of motor units of leg extensor muscles. Proceedings of the 3 rd International Scientific Conference on Prevention of Work-Realated Musculoskeletal Disrders, l3 th International Symposium on Epidemiology in Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland. 6. Milošević, M., Blagojević, M., Pilipović, S., & Tošić, B. (2000). The muscle contraction and the force production. Proceedings of the XVIII Internacional Symposium of Biomechanics in Sports, Hong Kong. 7. Milošević, M. (2002). Analiza stvaranja mišićne sile. SQ sportski časopis, 16 (1), Milošević, M., Mudrić, R., Dopsaj, M., Blagojević, M., & Papadimitriou, E. (2004): The control of force creating in function of the muscle contraction intensity. In: Kellis, E., Amiridis, I., & Vrabas., I, (Eds). 4 th International Conference on Strength Training: Book of Abstracts. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science at Serres, Serres, Greece, 2004, Milošević, M. (2010). Fizička priprema vrhunskih sportista: standardizacija procesa upravljanja. Beograd: APP. 10. Mudrić, R. Miloševic, M., & Dopsaj, M. (2003). A comparative analysis of the speed information processing during leg attacks planning and control of relization in karate. Exercise & Society of sports science, 23 Suppl 122: Mudrić, R., Milošević, M., & Jovanović, S. (2004). Napad u karateu: edukacija i trening. Beograd: VŠUP. 12. Zatsiorsky, V, M. (2000). Biomechanich in sport. Oxford: Blackwell Science.

15 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Scientific paper INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS UDK Žarko Popović April 11 th Swimming Club, Belgrade, Serbia Marijana Mladenović 1 College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract: Swimming coaches who work with children inevitably find themselves coming into direct contact with the children s parents. The pre-school age is a very specific period, as parents can react in a variety of ways to the work of the coach and to the mandatory rules which govern the behavior and activities of children alongside and surrounding the swimming pool. The interaction triangle coach-parent-child is, at the pre-school age, a very special relationship due to the specific nature of child development dynamics. Parents can be either too subjective or totally disinterested in the work and development of their children. The aim of this research was to register and describe recurring extreme situations which can bring into question the authority of a coach, as well as the carrying out of the plan and work program of the training session. The situations in which coaches can find themselves and the best methods for their resolving were analyzed. Also, certain practical recommendations for swimming coaches were given, which can help them to weigh up their reactions in certain situations, and yet not disrupt the relationship between the coach, the parents and the children. Key words: swimming, pre-school age, coach, parents INTRODUCTION Parents can have a positive impact on the development and progress of their children if their relationship with the coach is full of consideration and accepts the existing potential of their children. 1 * marijana.mladenovic@vss.edu.rs + 15

16 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Interaction or communication, in this case, is a three-sided directing of dialog and cooperation (coach-parent-child) within the framework of the process of instructing children in the rules of swimming. In the case of a lack of cooperation and effective interaction between the coach and the parents, the objective might not be met and the children might fail in becoming skilled at swimming. The role of the parents is relevant within that relationship, due to the fact that the psychomotor and sensorimotor development of pre-school children is still to a large extent dependent on the parents. Thus, parents have the most influence on the children and their motivation to get involved with swimming at that age. Furthermore, the aim of this research was also to test the potential conflict situations between the coach and parents. Even though this research is based on the coach-parent relationship, the children themselves are in no way left out, as it is they who may very well be the cause of the conflict between the coach and the parents. Depending on the parents approach in interacting with the coach, in practice there are various possibilities for a conflict of opinions in the coach-parent relationship. The authority of the coach A swimming coach, according to some general professional standards, should be very calm and positive, especially during the reception of new children for whom the pool and the gathering of children in a group is perhaps a completely new experience. It is also important for coaches to adapt to the children s age adequate verbal expression and for them to be acquainted with the basics of the development of pre-age children (Smiljanić, 1991; Piaget, 1977). All this is in the function of creating a positive and emotionally optimal setting for the children s training. It can be said that the most important task of coaches, with the aid of their appearance, intonation, approach, as well as total presentation, is to enable pre-age children to develop a positive affective attitude towards them. Also, it is important that the personal qualities of the coaches facilitate and develop children s love for water and for the healthy sport of swimming. In order for swim training to be carried out successfully, it would be optimal for the coaches to have been swimmers previously, though it is irrelevant whether they were expert or merely average swimmers. The very fact that they were skilled in swimming can help them in their work by building their self-confidence, and thus they can more easily get involved in a deeper analysis of swimming techniques. Working with young pre-school children demands that coaches have a positive attitude, as well as a lot of patience. It is very important for swim coaches working with children to know what they wish to achieve in a specific training session, just as it is important that they are 16 +

17 Ž. Popović, M. Mladenović: INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS communicative and have self-confidence (Lazarević, 2003). When pre-school children perceive that a coach lacks basic work skills, they quickly lose attention, perhaps not consciously. The fact that in working with pre-school children parents are inevitably included in the entire process cannot be disregarded, but it is equally a hard fact that parents are usually ill acquainted with the job of coaching. Thus, it is necessary that the coaches have knowledge and skills which enable them to carry out quality work and enact a positive relationship with the children and their parents. If a coach lacks self-confidence and a firm attitude, very unpleasant situations can occur. Is the parent ready to hand over the child to someone else? This is a question which parents ask themselves quite often. The coach must get to know the parents of the child, in order for them to also become familiar with the instructor who will be training their child. For that reason, coaches must maintain a firm stance, they should be confident, positive and outgoing. Interaction with parents is psychologically very demanding for coaches, as reporting of progress or the lack thereof of every child is necessary for each and every parent. The influence of parents Parents frequently do not know their own children well, which can lead to conflict situations in relations between the coach and parents. Also, research has shown that when parents and educators work together, children are usually more successful in school. Something similar can be assumed when it comes to children s sports (Weissbourd, 2009). The relationship between parents and children in regards to participation in sports is mainly accepted in professional literature as one-sided, as influence exerted from the parent to the child. Namely, parents make the original decision to sign up their children for sports, especially during their formative years, and thus, have an enormous influence on the abilities of the children and their enjoyment in sports. Some studies, however, suggest that the interfering of parents in their children s sports activities and results can have quite negative consequences (Kanters, 2002). Conflicts If we take into consideration that a conflict occurs in any situation when two or more persons or a group of people are faced with the fact that they have different needs, wishes, interests, expectations and attitudes which cannot seemingly be coordinated, the extent of the variety of conflicts and manners of behavior which exists within them becomes clear (Popadić and assoc., 1998). + 17

18 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 The three styles of behavior that exist in conflict situations are the following: the principled, indulgent and rigid style. The principled style is such that it takes care of a person s own interest, but also the interest of the other person concerned. The indulgent style is typical for those who during a conflict pay more attention to the needs of the other party, and who find it most important to retain good relations with others during a conflict. The rigid style implies taking care of only one s own interests, along with stimulating competition during the resolving of conflicts. METHOD Using the observation method, in the period between March and May 2010 in the April 11th Swimming Club, all interactions between the swimming coach (the first quoted author of this article) and parents were registered. The contents of the registered interactions were also analyzed. Some 50 parents were included in the study. Parents bringing their children to the pool for the first time, that is, to the beginners group, participated in the interaction for the most part, some 30% more in relation to parents from the second and third groups. One group contained an average of 12 children. There were 3 groups: the first (beginners), second (progressive) and the third, most advanced, which means an average of 36 children in total. Training sessions were held twice a week, on Saturdays and Sundays. The duration of the training session was 45 minutes - 30 minutes of which were dynamic. The number of interactions between the coach and the parents depended on the fact whether the child had come to the pool for the first time and whether the child was progressing or stagnating, or, on the other hand, there was an irregularity in attending training session. On average, the coach had from 2 to 4 interactions with parents per group. Whether the number of interactions with parents will be greater or lesser depends on the demands of the coach and parents, as well as which group is involved. If, for example, events such as competitions are planned, then the number of interactions of the coach with the parents can range from 7 to 15 interactions per training session in the third group, which is the most advanced. In the beginners group, the coach most often has between 2 and 4 interactions with the parents per training session. In the second, progressive group, the number of interactions is the least - from 1 to 3. The interactions were recorded before and after training. 18 +

19 Ž. Popović, M. Mladenović: INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS RESULTS Zabeležene komunikacije trenera i roditelja analizirane su i svrstane u jednuthe recorded interactions between the coach and the parents were analyzed and classified into categories given by Popadić and associates (1998), and an example of a combined style was provided. Typical situation 1. An example of a typical conflict situation between the coach and parents is when a parent forces a child to get involved with swimming against his/her will. Practice has shown that with time, children give up swimming due to pressure from parents, not because they dislike water. Parental pressure also reflects negatively on children s potential for swimming. In that case, the coach can instruct parents that children cannot be forced to do sports activities without any personal motivation and against their free will, as that kind of treatment is very negative, and the pool setting, as a result of this, becomes a place where the child feels ill at ease. It should also be emphasized to parents that children can in this way lose all self-confidence and form a great resistance towards water and water sports. In such a situation, a possible negative reaction on the part of the parents can be prevented by the coach s firm arguments. This is an example of a situation when coaches must maintain a balance between the parents and the children and not undermine their own work and authority. This style of negotiating can be called the principled style. Typical situation 2: Another situation which can potentially be conflicting and fairly often happens in practice occurs when parents wish to change the set time and program of their children s training sessions, as their friends might belong to a more progressive group. The insisting of parents to change the time should not have any impact on the coach and the decision made, for, if the child is unprepared to progress to the more advanced group, he/she should remain in their existing one. Relenting under parental pressure means creating a whole new set of problems, as the child will not progress if the previously instilled knowledge of a certain swimming technique is not fully entrenched. This is called the indulgent style, used in a negative sense for the coach. Typical situation 3. Sometimes it happens that a child is transferred from a more advanced to a less progressive group. It is at times necessary to do this if a child is not able to carry out some technical moves, is very close to achieving this, but the group overall is too skilled for him/her to progress more rapidly. It usually happens that parents, as well as children, react to this situation dramatically. + 19

20 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 However, if the coach clearly explains the situation to the children and has an understanding with them why they are reverting back to the less progressive group, success is guaranteed, though of course the parent has to support this as well. This would be a good example for a rigid style of the coach as it can be said that it is an error to transfer a child from a good to a less advanced group, although it is also necessary to stress that this happens at the risk of the coach himself/herself, whose task is to get the most out of the children in order for them to return to their initial group as soon as possible. Nevertheless, if a smaller lagging behind is involved, it can also have the effect of an incentive on the child to try harder, and even achieve the outcome of the parent bringing the child to training sessions with more regularity. It seems, thus, that if a child is transferred to a better group and after that ceases to come to training for a month, everything achieved in the previous period loses its effect, as there is no continuity in training the technique involved. Therefore, there is a lagging behind, that is, a repeated repetition of the previously acquired. Typical situation 4. The instance of parents with unrealistic ambitions: it is very hard to explain to ambitious parents that their children are incapable of the achievements they have envisioned for them. The coach must listen closely to the parents and with various suggestions try to detract them from their intentions. However, it occurs very frequently that such parents cannot be swayed from their ambitions for their offspring, which can later have the consequence of the children giving up swimming altogether. The style which the coach can apply in these situations is an indulgent-principled one, that is, a combined style. In this situation, it can happen that none of the styles can bring a desired result, as the parents ambition may hinder the work of the coach and the development of the child. However, if the coach has a lenient attitude towards the demands of the parents, the problem can occur that the children cannot keep up with their group and a potential conflict can also be instigated. The principled style is, nevertheless, the best in this situation as the coach knows best when the child is ready to learn a new technique or to progress to the more advanced group. Typical situation 5: One variant of a conflict situation in interacting with parents can occur when the cause for initiating a conflict with the coach is something which has nothing to do with training swimming and the children themselves (for example, family problems, etc.), due to which the frustration of the parents is transferred onto the coach and other parents. This is a situation in which parents, in front of children and other parents as well as the coach, dole out criticism and condemnation without any foundation, which is very negatively reflected first on the children and their view of the coach, and then the coach himself/herself. Also, such a situation, if it escalates, can cause the coach to have a very defensive attitude, but he/ she will stand in defense of his own work and the work of the club and then 20 +

21 Ž. Popović, M. Mladenović: INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS attempt to put forth that such behavior on the part of the parent can not bring good results, as the coach is the ultimate authority. This is an example of the principled-authoritative coaching style. Such a style in the given situation can be considered the most efficient, as there have to be some norms of behavior in sports which must not be overlooked. DISCUSSION During the last few decades, it has been excepted of most educators to answer all the questions put forth by parents, though prior to this, it was not required by the coach to be accountable to parents in regards to the training times and other key issues ( relationships). Namely, it was considered that the coach holds unquestioned authority. Many coaches also see sports as some kind of haven for children, as a shelter from the pressures of the external world, including parental demands ( sports-parents-ii-creating-strong-parent-coach-relationships). However, considering that we live in an age when an increasing number of parents are very engaged in every aspect of development of their children and micromanage their lives, the potential for conflict is very high. One of the most important causes of misunderstandings between swimming coaches and parents is the skills levels of pre-school children. Also, another reason for disagreements can relate to how the coach, that is the parent, assesses the potential and abilities of the children. The parents certainly have the right to discuss their evaluation with the coach, but it is important that they are ready to accept the professional opinion of the coach. During the assessment of the skills and potential of the children, an emphasis should always be put on the process of learning and not on the realized results (Lazarević, 2001). The issue which is almost daily imposed on the coaches in practice is how to resolve these problematic situations in interacting with parents. It is also recommended that the swimming coach and the parents always have in mind that the benefit of the child is in the first place. Examples of some common types of parental behavior patterns follow, as well as some advice by coaches on how to interact with certain types of parents. Disinterested parents: The coach can consider insisting on parental presence for a certain number of training sessions set in advance. Parents who consider this too complicated can confer with the coach. Overcritical parents: Parents can be unaware of their own critical manner. The coach can say to the parent, I heard you said so and so to my child, what did you mean by that...? Or:... would it perhaps be better to say this? + 21

22 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Over-protective parents: The risks which sports involve should be considered and the coach might offer parents some tips concerning their fears and anxiety, as well as explain to parents what it is that the coach does in order to maintain a secure environment for training and competition for children. Also, parents should be allowed to remain at the sessions but it is important for them to leave before every successive training session. There is no need to be too inflexible towards the parents, especially if a child becomes scared or is injured during the training. Coaches sometimes feel as if they are being targeted by parents, whom they consider very subjective. Many coaches have experience with parents who fervently defend their children, not thinking of the benefit of the other children at all. Coaches can also resent those parents which behave towards them as if they are their children s babysitters. On the other hand, many parents of young athletes complain about some coaches who they felt did not sufficiently appreciate their child, or behaved badly towards them. Much can be done to prevent conflicts or to at least find some kind of compromise. It is important for the coaches to have in mind that abuse of children in sports is not rare that parents have a good reason for anxiety in regards to trusting their children to an unknown person who is largely unverified. Coaches should also acknowledge that there are great advantages in creating a temporary area where children are isolated from the pressures of family, though their job is not to liberate children from their families but to strengthen relations between parents and children, which is the essence of the healthy development of children. This means, for example, that coaches should not only engage parents when children become scared, they should also be careful to avoid undermining the authority of parents and appreciate them in a way which is obvious to children. The natural boundary and degree of communication between the coach and parents depends on the children s age and the level of the specific course. Coaches can also encourage the participation of parents and determine which kind of involvement is the most appropriate. Due to the fact that coaches can be vague when expressing opinions and decisions, many parents have logical questions which remain unanswered: Should I say something to the coach if my child is nervous or feels uncomfortable? Should I get involved if my child feels neglected or humiliated by the other children? Should I talk to the coach if my child feels uncomfortable in the swimming lane during the training or thinks he/she swims better than the others? Coaches can clear up this dilemma, though it is not recommendable for the parents to get involved in the decisions of the coach. The recommendation is that coaches should determine a specific time during the week when parents can lay out their dilemmas (Dale, 2005; 2009). 22 +

23 Ž. Popović, M. Mladenović: INTERACTION AND CONFLICT BETWEEN SWIMMING COACHES OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN AND THEIR PARENTS Great problems can appear in practice due to a lack of information regarding the fear of children of water during the entering of the pool and leaving it. In practice, swimming coaches must cooperate with parents and jointly find a solution for those children who have fear or feel uncomfortable by just being in a swimming pool. There are some regulations already set in practice how to behave with such children and with those parents who lack a sound approach to this issue. However, experience and long-term practice help the coach to overcome these kinds of situations. CONCLUSION There are three types of conflicts in sports which are common in practice. However, practice has produced examples of situations which are not given in the usual form yet provide a new source for analyzing practical work. The given solutions of conflict situations can, but do not necessarily have to, mean that they will provide the same results in similar situations. However, they offer certain standards which can help in their resolving. Special attention must be paid to extreme situations, as there are no standards for them, and their resolving depends exclusively on the performance of the coach. The role of parents of pre-school children is to develop independence in the child and to be free in interacting with the coach (explaining who the coach is and his role). In the coach-parent relationship, positive interaction creates in the child a feeling of security and self-confidence, and an accepting of sports activities and the demands set forth for him/her to achieve at the given moment. Parents have a large role in the coach-child relationship, as they are to demonstrate that the coach is the person who is accountable for everything in the water and around it and who decides on the sports progress of the child. When children become involved with sports, especially water sports, there are many problems and tasks which are seemingly unsolvable but essentially, everything can be achieved and realized if the parents devote enough attention and understanding to the children in times of difficulty and when the objective seems unattainable. Also, they need to be focused in their talks with their children and attempt to have a positive influence on their children s selfconfidence, as well as a positive attitude regarding swimming. Many descriptions of typical situations can be found in general psychological texts. There are very many typical examples in practice which match those given in the texts, and for such conflicts it is very easy to find a solution. Problems could arise with those situations which can be called extreme, when the coach for the first time encounters atypical forms of behavior in a sports + 23

24 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 environment which as a rule has a certain policy and behavioral norms. For, each extreme case is based on a maladjusted relationship between the parent and the child and the coach s authority. This means that an unconstructive atmosphere is created within the group, which greatly slows down the progress of the child as well as the achieving of the objective. Also, the extreme situation is mostly linked with external factors which are unrelated to swimming as well as with the development of the child s personality. This kind of situation can reflect very negatively on the coach-parent relationship and can place the child in the background. The common aim of the coach and parents is that everything is subordinated to the advancement and development of swimming skills in pre-school children. REFERENCES 1. Dale, G., (2005). The Fulfilling Ride: A Parent s Guide to helping Athletes Have a Successful Sport Experience. NC: Durham. 2. Dale, G., (2009). The Morally Mature Parent, аt com/.../the-morally-mature-sports-parent. 3. Kanters, M., (2002). Parents and youth sports: the good, the bad and why we need them - Research Update, at m1145/is_12_37/ai.../pg_3. 4. Lazarević, Lj., (2001). Psihološke osnove fizičke kulture. Beograd: Viša skola za sportske trenere. 5. Lazarević, Lj., (2001). Psihološka priprema sportista. Beograd: Viša skola za sportske trenere. 6. Pijaže, Ž., (1977). Psihologija inteligencije. Beograd: Nolit. 7. Popadić, D., Mrše, S., Kovač-Cerović, T., Pečujlić, S., Kijevčanin, S., Petrović, D. Bogdanović, M., (1998). Pametniji ne popušta. Beograd: Grupa MOST. 8. Smiljanić, V., (1991): Razvojna psihologija. Beograd: Centar za primenjenu psihologiju Društva psihologa Srbije. 9. Weissbourd, R., (2009). The Parents We Mean To Be. Psychology Today, at sports-parents-ii-creating-strong-parent-coach-relationships. 24 +

25 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Scientific paper THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS UDK Milija Ljubisavljević 1 Interior Ministry of the Republic of Serbia - Belgrade Serbia Mića Jotić Muaythai Union of Serbia - Novi Sad Serbia Dušan Kilibarda Kick Boxing Union of Vojvodina - Vrbas - Serbia Abstract: The sample group was composed of kickboxers of the cadet and junior age groups (from 18 years of age and older). On the basis of their achieved competitive sports results, they have been classified into four (4) categories, namely: I-category - athletes that have achieved the highest sports results, by winning a medal at world or European Championships. II-category - athletes that have won medals at international tournaments. III-category - athletes that have achieved sports results by winning a medal at a national championship. IVcategory - athletes that have not achieved significant sports results. The purpose of this paper is to determine the anthropological characteristics (morphological characteristics and motor abilities) of athletes in kickboxing, and their influence at the level of competitive success; to compare the morphological characteristics between all four groups of kickboxers; to compare the motor abilities of all four groups of kickboxers. The subject of this paper is the comparative analysis of certain anthropological characteristics (the morphological and basic-motor status), that have been developed during a training process lasting several years. In order to get relevant data, implemented was the system of 27 variables (11-morphological and 16-motoric). Analysis has shown that kickboxers from the first category have achieved the best results in most of the tested motor variables, while kickboxers from the fourth category achieved the worst results. Key words: kickboxing, morphological characteristics, motor abilities 1 * milija.ljubisavljevic@gmail.com + 25

26 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 INTRODUCTION Kickboxing, composed of its various sub-groups: full-contact, low kick, K-1, semi-contact, light-contact, aero-kick and music forms, has experienced an enormous expansion around the world and in Serbia, so that it has become ever more interesting for all kinds of scientific research. Kickboxing is part of a group of combat sports relying on inflicting blows (punching). The initial development of kickboxing took place in Japan. Being a specific form of (unarmed) combat skill, it was inspired by Muay Thai, a combat skill originating in Thailand. The name kickboxing was invented by the Japanese promoter Osamu Noguchi, as a branch of Muay Thai and karate. In 1966, Osama Noguchi organized the first kickboxing competition in Osaka. In the mid-seventies of the previous century, the name kickboxing was accepted in the USA. Dissatisfied with the growing number of irregular judging decisions, an effort was made, just like in boxing, to realistically assess the consequences of inflicting blows (punches) in a sporting contest. One of the people who supported the concept of full contact was manager Mike Anderson, who gathered around him the best American contestants in point karate, persuading them to try out the new sport named full contact (meaning a full contact between the contestants, as its main characteristic). Most of the material available and processed in connection with this topic dealt with karate, wrestling, judo or boxing. In Serbia, kickboxing has been insufficiently researched. Published were a small number of research papers: the teaching of leg work, winning points, improvement of technical skill, the difference in categories, the percentage of injuries, etc. Pelević (1998) in his book Kickboxing - theory and methodology, presented the basis of the origin of kickboxing and its development from the period of organizing the first international tournaments, to the period of the former Yugoslavia. The book presented the comprising subgroups, technical skills, judging rules and Serbian champions. We can freely say that this book marks the beginning of the institutional development of kickboxing as a discipline at the College for Coaches (trainers) at Novi Sad, representing a big pioneer step of being integrated in the local educational system (College for Coaches). Kapo, Rađo and Kajmović (2004а) have done several other studies. They used 26 +

27 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS a sample of 8 ace competitors in the super heavy category (over 91 kg) from South East Europe, specialists for specific unarmed combat sports (boxing, kickboxing, Muay Thai, kung fu and tae kwon do), competing according to the rules of K-1 at the tournament KING OF THE COLOSSEUM SARAJEVO The results of the research have shown that boxing and Muay Thai dominate based on the statistical share of blows inflicted in these two combat sports at the K-1 tournament. Furthermore, Kapo and others (2004б) made a research of a sample of eight ace competitors in the super heavy weight category (over 91 kg) from South East Europe, specialists for specific combat sports (boxing, kickboxing, karate), contesting according to the rules K-1, at the tournament KING OF THE COLOSSEUM Travnik The purpose of this paper was to determine to what extent the morphological characteristics were connected among themselves in the efficiency of the performance of situational-motor abilities and to determine the dominance of the technical and tactical elements in the K-1 sport on the basis of situational efficiency. The achieved results pointed to the domination of arm (hand) technical skills versus leg skills as indicated by the share of boxing in the K-1 sport. This fact clearly shows that coaches must work on the improvement of leg technical skills, and devote more time in training and the strengthening of the lower body (cutting down on the number of injuries). It is interesting to note the morphological data on weight with the variables of injuries (0.64) caused by blows inflicted by legs (feet)(0.31), indicating the fact that weight has a negative correlation with blows inflicted by the legs, in other words, as the competitors are heavier, they have a lesser frequency of blows inflicted by the legs, and are more prone to injuries of the lower body parts. Kapo, Cikatić, Rađo, Bonacin, Kajmović and Hmjelovjec (2007) have made a study on a sample of 98 ace competitors in the super heavy weight category (over 91 kg), who took part in the final K-1 tournaments in Japan from 1993 to The competitors were from 21 to 39 years old. A total of 85 fights and 205 rounds were analyzed. The purpose of the research was the analysis of the implementation of arm blows during contest activity of the most successful competitors in the K-1 sport in the world. The data was acquired by videos of all the fights performed during the last 12 years (from 1993 to 2004), at the final Grand Prix in Japan (only the 8 best in the world qualify for the final). Results show that the frequency of arm blows (at these tournaments) amounts to 65% compared to leg blows (35%). This proves the dominant role + 27

28 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 of arm technical skills with regards to energy consumption, simplicity of performance, and speed and economy, compared to leg skills. It has also become evident that the most frequently used blows were left and right direct blows to the head. Also evident was the very frequent use of the left and right uppercuts and hooks, indicating the dominance of boxing technical skills. Brković (2005), in his M.A. paper, researched the characteristic elements of technical skills that win points in the contests of ace kick boxers. The study was made using the documentation method, that is, the analysis of the official bulletin of the tournament and the official report (official minutes) of the tournament and the analysis of the video material of all semi-final and final contests in 11 categories in full contact and kickboxing, from two world championships held in Belgrade in 2001 and Paris in Some 66 fights were analyzed in the functional dependence of the following variables: competition, category, fight duration, method of achieving victory and the technical skill of scoring points. Results have proven that the frequency of scoring points was higher at the 2003 World Championship than at the 2001 World Championship (the difference amounted to a total of scored points). The results point to a qualitative shift in the development of full contact kickboxing. At the 2003 World Championship, there was a larger share of blows inflicted by the hand (a total of ) compared to the 2001 World Championship (a total of ). At the 2003 World Championship, there was a larger share of leg blows (a total of ) compared with the 2001 World Championship (a total of ). The arm blow technical skill was present in the heavier categories (from semi-middle weight to super-heavy weight) in comparison with the lighter categories (from bantamweight to welterweight). The leg blow technical skill is more evident in the lighter categories compared to the heavier categories. The exception is the so-called complex leg blow technical skills, which have a lesser share at both of the above mentioned championships. The subject of this paper is the comparative analysis of certain anthropological characteristics (morphological and basic motor status), which have developed during a training process lasting many years. The aims of the paper are to determine the anthropological characteristics (morphological characteristics and motor abilities) of the athletes in kickboxing, and their influence on the degree of competitive success, to make a comparison of morphological characteristics among all the four groups of kickboxers, and to make a comparison of the motor abilities among all four groups of kickboxers. 28 +

29 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS METHOD The sample of competitors was composed of kickboxers of the cadet and junior age groups (from 18 years of age and older), a group of 69 of them representing top Serbian kickboxing athletes. The competitors held their training sessions in clubs on the territory of Vojvodina; namely, in four clubs from Novi Sad and one club from Vrbas. The standard competitors were members of the Serbian national team in kickboxing and participants of European and world Championships. A number of these kickboxers have won several world and European medals. They represent the best quality in sport in Serbia. On the basis of the achieved sports-competitive results, they have been divided into four (4) categories, namely: I category - athletes that have achieved the highest results in sports, by winning one of the medals at world and/or European Championships. II category - athletes that have won medals at international tournaments (competitions). III category - athletes that have achieved results in sports by winning one of the medals at a national championship. IV category athletes that have not achieved significant results in sports. The entire measurement program was carried out by visits to kickboxing clubs where, in agreement with the coaches, the set assignments were realized. To get the relevant data, a system of 27 variables was implemented (11 morphological and 16 motor). Variable for the assessment of the morphological status: Longitudinal dimensions: height of the body (TELVIS), length of legs (DUŽNOG), length of arms (DUŽRUK), transversal dimensions: width of shoulders (ŠIRRAM), width of pelvis (ŠIRKAR), diameter of knee (DJMKOL). The body mass voluminosity: medium width of chest (SOBGRK), body mass (TELMAS). Subcutaneous fatty-adipose tissue: skin wrinkle of forearm (KNAPOD), skin wrinkle of back (KNALEĐ), skin wrinkle of stomach (KNATRB). Variable for the assessment of motor abilities: General coordination: The figure 8 with bending down (MAGOSS), steps to the side (MAGKUS), climbing up and down a bench and the Swedish ladder (MBKPIS). Movement frequency: tapping with a hand (MBFTAP - Picture 1), tapping with a foot (leg) (MBFTAZ), circular motion of the hand (MBFKRR), + 29

30 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Pic. 1- Tapping with a hand Pic. 2 - Forward bend, legs apart Flexibility: sidestep (MFLISK), forward bending on a bench (MFLPRK), forward bending and legs apart (MFLPRR - Picture 2). Explosive strength: the throw of a medicine ball (fitness ball) while flat on the back (MFEBNL), high jump from a standing position (MFESVM - Picture 3), long jump from a standing position (MFESDM - Picture 4), Pic. 3 - High jump from standing position Pic. 4 - Long jump from standing position Strength: pulling up and going down motions on the horizontal bar (MRAZGP), lifting of the body with weights (MRCDTT), semi-kneel with weight (MRLPCT). Endurance: running 1,500 meters (IZ1500). 30 +

31 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS The measurement of the morphological status was done by using the following measurement instruments: a mobile digital scale, anthropometry by Martin, Caliper, measurement ribbon (tape) 200 cm long. The measurement of motor abilities was done by the following measuring instruments: two wooden stands 150 cm high; a flexible ribbon 450 cm long; Swedish bench; Swedish ladder; a board for hand tapping; a wooden roller 35cm wide and 30cm high, a chair with a back rest; a stop watch; a wooden stick 2.5cm in diameter and 165cm long; a bench 40cm high; a ruler 150cm long; a sticky plastic tape; a medicine ball weighing 1 kilogram; a thin mattress 3 meters long; a horizontal bar; a bar with a weight that had a total weight of 20 and 60 kilograms. The data was processed in Excel, and the data obtained was processed in the statistical program SPSS-a-13. For each variable there was calculated a descriptive statistical string X;SD;Med;Mod;Min;Max;Rang (for each morphological characteristic and motor ability). The Skewness coefficient was also calculated the asymmetry of distribution (positive or negative). The Kurtosis coefficient was also calculated the homogeneity of distribution. By using the univariance analysis (ANOVA), it was determined whether there is any difference between the average values of the morphological characteristics and motor abilities in respect to competitive success, what their significance is, and which average values differ significantly in statistical terms (LSD post hoc test of pair groups). With the performance of the discriminative analysis, found and defined were factors that most successfully differentiate the four (4) categories of competitive success and carry the highest degree of discrimination of morphological and motor characteristics, observed at the group level of competitive success. The centroids of the groups have been presented in space as the first two discriminative factors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of morphological characteristics and motor abilities of kickboxers were obtained by using descriptive statistics. Measuring the morphological characteristics of kickboxers (Table 1), certain empirical distributions of frequencies in which average values are contained were obtained: body height , leg length , arm length + 31

32 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o , shoulder width-41.69, pelvis width , knee diameter-10.60, medium voluminosity of chest-99.07, body mass , skin wrinkle of forearm-8.84, skin wrinkle of back-18.16, skin wrinkle of stomach Comparing the average values of kickboxers with the average values of athletes in other combat sports (Mudrić, Milošević and Jovanović, 2004; Drid, 2005), and taking into account that in all these other sports competition is organized in categories of weight, it can be concluded that the morphological characteristics of kickboxers do not deviate from the average values in the above mentioned sports. The average values of kickboxers compared with the average values of the students of the Interior Ministry College and the Police Academy in Belgrade (Baltić, 2006; Blagojević, 2003; Subotički, 2002), indicate that kickboxers show lower results in some of the variables (body height for 3 cm; leg length for 8.5 cm; arm length for 7 cm; shoulder width for 7 cm), that is, higher results (knee diameter for 0.70cm; forearm skin wrinkle for 4 m; back skin wrinkle for 9 mm; stomach skin wrinkle for 0.5 mm). Such average values of the students can be explained by the fact that on admission candidates must have a certain height and weight, unlike kickboxers. Measuring the motor abilities of kickboxers (Table 2), obtained were certain empirical distributions of frequencies containing average values, such as: the figure 8 with bending-18.85, steps to the side-9.85, climbing up and down a bench-21.90, hand tapping-38.07, leg (foot) tapping-34.75, circular arm movement-40.36, sidestep , forward bending on bench-48.90, forward bending with legs apart , throwing of medicine ball while flat on back-6.79, long jump from standing position , high jump from standing position-48.19, up and down movement on horizontal bar-11.81, lifting of body with its weight-26.77, semi-kneeling position with weight-26.83, running 1500m IZ Comparing the obtained average results of the tests of kickboxers with those of the pupils of the Interior Ministry College in Sremska Kamenica and the Interior Ministry High School in Banja Luka (Drid, 2005; Paspalj, 2005), it may be concluded that in certain variables (general coordination, flexibility, explosive strength), kickboxers achieved poorer results compared with other variables (movement frequency, explosive strength, endurance) in which they achieved better results. 32 +

33 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS Table 1. Results for Morphological Characteristics Body height-telvis, leg length-dužnog, arm length-dužruk, shoulder width-širram, pelvis width-širkar, diameter knee-djmkol, medium volume of chest-sobgr, body mass- TELMAS, forearm skin wrinkle-knapod, back skin wrinkle - KNALEĐ, stomach skin wrinkle - KNATRB. Table 2. Results for Motor Abilities Figure 8 with bending-magoss, steps to side-magkus, climbing up and down bench-mbkpis, hand Tapping-MBFTAP, leg tapping-mbftaz, circular arm motion- MBFKRR, sidestep-mflisk, forward end on bench-mflprk, forward bend with legs apart-mflprr, medicine ball throw while on back-mfebnl, long jump from standing position-mfesdm, high jump from standing position-mfesvm, ups and downs on horizontal bar-mrazgb, lifting body with weight-mrcdtt, semi-kneeling position with weight - MRLPCT, running 1500m - IZ

34 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 A univariance analysis ANOVA, has indicated that certain morphological characteristics of kickboxers have a high degree of interdependence with success in competition, that is, have impact on success in competition. The longitudinal dimensions (Table 3) have been marked as very significant for success in kickboxing. It has been determined that in the variable body weight (ATELVI), there is a statistical significance in respect of p<0.01 in categories III and I. The difference is in the fact that category III has the statistically highest medium value (182.29cm) in comparison with the medium value of category I (175.36cm). In the variable of arm length (DUŽRUK), it has been determined that there is a statistical significance in respect of p<0.05. The difference is reflected in that group III has a statistically higher medium value (72.8cm) in comparison with the medium value of group I - (68.94cm). Practice has proven that those kickboxers that are taller and have longer extremities (limbs), may have advantage in their categories (compared to those that are shorter with shorter extremities), forcing fighting at a distance (using length of arms and legs). The kickboxers in category III are winners of medals at national competitions, which does not mean that they could not be successful at the world level (if they competed) like kickboxers in category I. The results of the subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose) (Table 4), have proven that in the variable forearm skin wrinkle (KNAPOD), there is a statistical significance in respect of p<0.05 between categories IV and I. The difference is reflected in the fact that category IV has a statistically higher medium value (12.41mm), in comparison with the medium value of category I (6.82mm), which was to be expected in view of the fact that kickboxers of category I are participants of European and world championships. The variables back skin wrinkle (KNBLEĐ), and stomach skin wrinkle (KNBTRB), have indicated that there is no statistical significance among the categories. However, even if the difference in the values is not statistically significant, it clearly points to differences in sports success. It may now be concluded that these variables are very significant for the achievement of results in this sport. Kickboxers with a large quantity of subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose) will have less success than kickboxers of the same body weight, but a lower quantity of fatty tissue. This can be explained by the fact that the best kickboxers (I, II, III category) spend more time in the training process than the kickboxers of category IV (a longer training period), that they practice more often (even as much as two times a day), that they constantly control their weight because of category classification (which has an impact on a diminished quantity of subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose)), regardless of the category they are in, that they pay attention to what they eat, etc. 34 +

35 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS Table 3. Longitudinal dimensions Table 4. Subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose) + 35

36 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 The univariable analysis ANOVA in the motor domain has highlighted general coordination and strength as significant for success in kickboxing. General coordination (Table 5) - the obtained values in the variable and the figure 8 with bending (MAGOSS) has proven that there is a statistical significance in respect of p<0.05 among categories III, IV and II. The difference is reflected in the fact that category II has a statistically better achieved time medium value (17.96 sec.), in comparison with the achieved time medium value of categories III - (19.48 sec.) and IV (19.31 sec.) and I (18.49 sec.). In the variable steps to side (MAGKUS), it has also been determined that there is statistical significance in respect of p<0.001 between categories III and I in respect of p<0.05; between categories II and III, in respect of p<0.01 between categories IV and III. The difference is reflected in that category III has the statistically best achieved time medium value (9.09 sec.), as compared with the achieved times medium values in categories I (10.58 sec.), II (9.85 sec.) and IV (10.16 sec.). Climbing up and down the bench (MBPKIS), the most exacting and most complex test, has determined that there is statistical significance in respect of p<0.05 between categories IV and I. The achieved result of category I (19.87 sec.), in respect of the achieved time medium value (23.55 sec.) of category IV, confirms to us the hypothesis that category IV (which has had no sporting success), has achieved the worst results in comparison with category I. The variables where more complex movements are necessary (general coordination) are significant for the achievement of the best results. The more complex the performance of the test (more complex coordination movements), the greater is the difference between the best and the worst competitors. The difference is exceptionally evident in the variable of climbing up and down the bench, where kickboxers of category I excel with achieved results in comparison with kickboxers of category IV. The difference can be explained by the fact that kickboxers of category I have longer training periods, have more experience (more competitive matches), and by that very fact improve their coordination (faster and easier performance of the more complex movements), which reflects on the final result and success in competition. Strength (Table 6): the results in the variable of pulling up the body and going down the horizontal bar (MRAZGB), show that there is a statistical significance in respect of p<0.01 between categories I and IV. Category I in statistical terms has the best result (15.55), compared with category IV with the worst results (9.30). 36 +

37 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS In the variable of lifting the body with its own weight (MRCDTT), it has also been determined that there is statistical significance in respect of p<0.01, between categories II and IV. The difference is reflected in the fact that category II in statistical terms has the best result (30.74), compared with category IV, which has achieved the worst result (23.40). The results of the variable of semi-kneeling with weight (MRLPCT), have not produced any statistical significance, but it has been noted that category I has achieved the best result. The best results have been achieved by kickboxers of category I in the variables for the assessment of strength. Strength (more notably repetitive), enables kickboxers to endure the contest, which is characterized by continuous movements and blows. Contesting (fighting) in kickboxing is characterized by the employment of all muscles, pointing to the great significance of strength for success in kickboxing. Table 5. General Coordination + 37

38 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Table 6. Strength The obtained results in the variables related to explosive strength, endurance, flexibility and movement frequency have not shown any statistical significance, but it could be noted that categories I, II, III have achieved better results in comparison with category IV. A discriminative analysis has determined which morphological characteristics and which tests in motorics best contribute to the differences between the categories, depending on the sports results. Morphological area: in analysis, three factors have been determined. The first factor explains 59.6% of variability and variance. It has been named as the factor of subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose). The second factor explains the 22.9% variability, named as the factor of longitudinal dimensionality variance. The third factor explains the 17.5% of variability and variance, and was named the factor of transversal dimensionality. On the basis of the value of the chi-squared test, it was noted that none of the three factors have been statistically significant. The motor area analysis has determined three factors. The first factor explains 48.9% of variability and variance. It has been named as the factor of endurance. The second factor explains 34.5% of variability and variance, named the factor of general motorics. The third factor explains 15.5% of variability and variance, and was named as the factor of general coordination. On the basis of the value of the chi-squared test, it can be noted that the first two factors are statistically significant. 38 +

39 M. Ljubisavljević, M. Jotić, D. Kilibarda: THE MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND MOTOR ABILITIES OF KICKBOXERS AT DIFFERENT LEVELS OF COMPETITIVE SUCCESS CONCLUSION The research was performed on a sample of 69 kickboxers in training for the sport of kickboxing. Kickboxers in category I have achieved the best results in most of the tested motor variables. Kickboxers in category IV have achieved the worst results in comparison with the other three categories. The values obtained by measuring the morphological status point to the fact that there is no statistical significance in all the morphological characteristics among all four categories of kickboxers. Certain morphological characteristics of kickboxers are to a large extent connected with success in competing. In the first place there is longitudinality, which means that longer extremities (limbs) enable fighting at a distance. Increased values of subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose) may be a disruptive factor for success in kickboxing. Kickboxers with larger values of fatty tissue will have less success than those kickboxers of the same category that have lower values of subcutaneous fatty tissue (adipose). Body mass and voluminosity influence the success of kickboxers, in that the kickboxers that have a larger chest volume are stronger and more easily endure inflicted blows. In the motor field, it has not been confirmed that there is statistical significance among all the variables, but certain motor abilities are very important for success in kickboxing. In order for a kickboxer to be successful, he must develop a high degree of explosive strength, especially in the arms and shoulder area. A significant place is held by mechanisms which regulate energy exits, proving the influence of repetitive strength, which enables the kickboxer to endure a fight, that is characterized by constant movements and hitting with the hands and feet. Synchronized movement of the hands and feet, quick changes in movement direction, and the realization of complex motor structures (shifting the whole body in space), enables the kickboxer to have a highly developed coordination of hands, feet and legs, and the whole body (which results have confirmed). The influence of flexibility on success in sports is very significant (although obtained results have not shown any statistical significance). It enables easier and faster hip rotation, performing movements of large amplitudes, and enables more efficient performance of defense-attack (making it easier to land blows). If there are any abrupt changes in the morphological characteristics (increase of fatty tissue), they can become disruptive factors in the effort to achieve higher values in certain motor abilities of kickboxers (which + 39

40 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 is followed by poorer results in competitions). In practice, this is explained by the fact that motor abilities must be adjusted to the morphological characteristics of kickboxers, as it is not possible to do the opposite (due to genetic constraints). REFERENCES 1. Baltić, R. (2006). Uticaj morfoloških karkteristika i motoričkih sposobnosti na efikasnost realizacije tehnika poluga. Beograd: Fakultet za menadžment u sportu, Univerzitet Braća Karić. 2. Blagojević, M. (2003). Uticaj nastave specijalnog fizičkog obrazovanja na promene morfoloških i motoričkih karakteristika studenata Policijske akademije. Monografija. Beograd: Policijska akademija. 3. Brković, S. (2005). Karakteristike poentirajućih tehnika na takmičenju vrhunskih kick boksera. Magistarska teza. Beograd: Fakultet fizičkog vaspitanja. 4. Drid, P. (2005). Uticaj specifičnih motoričkih vežbi na efikasnost motornog učenja elementarnih džudo tehnika. Doktorska disertacija. Novi Sad: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 5. Kapo, S., Rađo. I. & Kajmović, H. (2004а). Analiza K-1 turnira King of the Colosseum - Sarajevo Homosporticus, 7 (1), Kapo, S., Rađo. I. & Kajmović, H. (2004b). Analiza K-1 turnira King of the Colosseum - Travnik Sportski logos, 2 (3), Kapo, S., Cikatić, B., Rađo, I., Bonacin, D., Kajmović, H. & Hmjelovjec, I.(2007). Trendovi primjene ručnih tehnika u K-1. Homosporticus 9 (1), Mudrić, R., Milošević, M. & Jovanović, S. (2004). Napad u karateu (edukacija i trening). Beograd: VŠUP. 9. Paspalj, D. (2005). Uticaj bazično motoričkih sposobnosti na efikasnost izvođenja tehnika bacanja iz programa specijalnog fizičkog obrazovanja. Magistarska teza. Banja Luka: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 10. Pelević, B. (1998). Kik boks I-teorija i metodika. Beograd - Novi Sad: Viša škola za sportske trenere. 11. Subotički, S. (2002). Povezanost morfoloških i motoričkih karakteristika studenata VŠUP sa efikasnošću realizacije tehnika karatea iz programa specijalnog fizičkog obrazovanja. Magistarska teza. Novi Sad: Fakultet sporta i fizičkog vaspitanja. 40 +

41 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Scientific paper ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 UDK ; /2008 Vladan Marković 1 College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract: The Olympic Games represent the most significant contest in the career of any athlete. Each swim race at the Games, the largest world competition, is analyzed in detail by means of competition parameters and the results are used in the aim of improving future accomplishments. The 100m butterfly or dolphin kick is one of the most exciting events and involves the most number of swimmers. Standard statistical procedures have noted a link of the results with certain competitor parameters and a progression of results with time. Key words: Olympic Games, competitor analysis, 100m butterfly stroke (dolphin kick). INTRODUCTION The Olympic Games represent the greatest sports spectacle, and in particular the last Olympic Games held in Beijing in 2008, which, with a participation of the largest number of countries thus far, including Serbia (competing under that name after 96 years), as well as the highest number of competitors and viewers (via all media outlets), confirms this assertion. If we ask the question why this is so, we might get various replies. One of the retorts is the following: there is a precisely defined aim, i.e. sports results. As man is a creative being, he is perfectly fit for that sort of challenge. Also, it is not irrelevant that contemporary sport has become 1 * vladan.markovic@vss.edu.rs + 41

42 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 a business, i.e. a pastime of many social groups. The area of sports is also an opportunity for promoting a country and all its top athletes. Furthermore, swimming, along with athletics, is the most massive sports at the Olympic Games (with over 1,000 competitors). All the participating athletes have the following distinct aim: to give their maximum, to achieve their best results and to realize the best ranking in their sports career. Moreover, competition is increasingly stronger and more numerous while sports records and results are improving constantly, and thus participating in semi-finals or finals is achieved by only a small number of the elite, by top swimmers (Marković, 2010). The researchers Popovski, Naumovski and Meškovska (1997) have carried out studies of some relevant biomechanical parameters of a number of 100m dolphin kick finalists at the Atlanta 1996 Olympic Games, applying regression analysis to the final results (represented as a criteria variable). A substantial link with the other variables (represented as predictors) was established, and common links were verified. In 1997, the same authors, by applying regression analysis to the relevant biomechanical parameters of the 200m dolphin kick finalists in the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, carried out research in which the final result was tested as a criterion variable, and the others as systems of predictor variables. It has statistically been determined that predictor variables significantly impact the final result, while the following variables have a significant partial impact: the start time, the time of straight swimming at 132.5m and the turn and time. Meškovska (2000) in her master s thesis researched the impact of some relevant biomechanical parameters on the results in individual events (namely, in women s swimming at the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games) and established a statistical link of the predictor variables with the final results (criteria variables), as well as a partial link of the predictor and criteria variables in each analyzed event. This paper will be exploring the issue of identification and analysis of parameters which are present in every race, as well as the comparison of the tested variables at the last five Olympic Games, while the aim of the paper is the analysis of competition parameters in the 100m butterfly or dolphin kick in the mentioned period. 42 +

43 V. Marković: ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 Special relevance is given by the author s participation at the last four Olympic Games and the expert cooperation in the Sydney 2000 Olympic macrocycle with Prof. Dimitrije Popovki, Ph.D. and Prof. Nataša Meškovska, Ph.D., both of which are professors in the swimming department of the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education in Skopje, FYROM, who have published papers from this area. Competition analysis of swimmers During the last 15 years, competition analysis has become a regular analytical procedure at every larger contest. The aim of competition analysis is to show the coach and the swimmer the comprehensible and detailed contents of each race in the contest. Furthermore, it shows in which parts of the race and which parameters some swimmers are better in than others. The reasons for using these analyses with coaches of top swimmers are the following: 1. They research and subsequently progressively improve the competition model of swimmers (Maglischo, 2003), 2. They identify (by parameter analysis in every stage of the race) and modify the weaknesses in the contesting (the improving of technique, its elements, race tactics, et al.), 3. To compare the swimmers parameters in the race, the swimming competitions and the competitors competing at various competitions at a variety of times and, 4. To secure for the coach information which can help him/her in choosing the best strategy for the swimmer s success, as for example, the eliminating of weaknesses in the race via the training session the optimal correlation between the length and frequency of the stroke in certain parts of the race can be determined during training (Colwin, 1992). The chosen samples (according to the standard of Dr. Rein Haljand) used for a regular analysis of European, world and Olympic contests (IOC - Competition analysis of swimming events, ) are made up of 12 variables of competitive analysis, namely: 1. Maximum swimming speed, m/s MSS 2. Speed of straight swimming, m/s SSS 3. Start time reaction, sec STR 4. Start time, sec ST 5. Time of straight swimming, sec TSS 6. Overtake time at 50m OT50 7. Stroke frequency, no/min SF 8. Stroke length, m SL + 43

44 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 9. Efficiency index EI 10. Turn time TT 11. Finish time FT 12. Final result, sec FR This set also includes variables which are exclusive representatives of a longitudinal dimensionality and volume and body mass: Body height, cm Body weight, kg Age BH BW AGE METHOD The sample of examinees The sample of examinees represents 80 top swimmers of the 100m dolphin kick, the participants of swimming contests at the last five Olympic Games in the period and includes at least 16 participants at each game. Variable sample The variable sample will make up the parameters of the tested swimming events, 13 competitor parameters, 2 morphological parameters and swimmer age. The program and measuring procedure The measuring and registering the results of the researched parameters in the competitive analysis was carried out by applying the methodology which was established by Dr Rein Haljand from the University of Tallinn, Estonia. He also established and perfected a video system for recording and registering the mentioned competitor parameters for each participant in each race. This methodology was modified and adapted for Australian conditions by Bruce Mason and Jim Fowlie at the Australian Institute of Sport in Canberra, Australia, and consists of the following: to register in every race, either automatically or electronically, the results of the mentioned parameters for every participant. The maximal reliability of these data was simply presumed necessary in the analysis of races at all European, world and Olympic competitions (IOC, 2000 Sidney Olympic Games). The gathering and registering of data was carried out with the help of an 8 video camera set along the swimming pool, at: 7.5m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 25m, 35m, 40m and 42.5m, from the starting position. 44 +

45 V. Marković: ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 The precision of the results in every parameter was registered when the swimmer s head reached a certain position, and the entire system was set up before the start of the race. The data for every swimmer, for all the predicted parameters, were noted in each 50m course, and at the end the values for each parameter were noted separately in regards to the number of courses (50m). Statistical processing of data Descriptive indicators have been used: the volume, the minimal and maximal result, the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, coefficient variation and regression analysis. To determine the differences in arithmetic means of all the analyzed parameters separately (realized at various Olympic Games in the period ) the analysis of variants was applied. RESULTS The results of the research were obtained by using of the mentioned statistical procedure from the relevant data, i.e. the official results of swimmers in the 100m dolphin kick from the last five Olympic Games. The analysis of swimmers results in this period carried out via descriptive analysis (Table 1) established that the greatest deviations were noticed in the following parameters: FR (final result), SSS (speed of straight swimming), OT50 (overtake time at 50m), FT (finish time), AH (anthropometric height) and AW (anthropometric weight). Table 1. Analysis of results of finalists in the 100m dolphin kick at the Olympic Games in the period

46 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Using regression analysis in comparing the impact of the tested parameters on the results (Diagram 1), we established that the following have greatest impact on the result: TSV (total swimming volume), OT50 (overtake time at 50m), TT and FT (turn time and finish time). Diagram 1. The impact of variables on the results of finalist swimmers at the Olympic Games in the 100m dolphin kick By analyzing the variants (Diagram 2) we established which values of the established variables change the most throughout the analyzed period, these being: FR (final result), MSS (maximum swimming speed), VP50 (overtake time at 50m), TT and FT (turn time and finish time) Diagram 2. Differences in values of the variables of swimmer finalists in the 100m dolphin kick at the Olympic Games in the period

47 V. Marković: ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 DISCUSSION The 100m butterfly or dolphin kick has in the last few years become one of the most popular swimming events. The reason for this interest, along with others, is undoubtedly the competing of the Serbia ace Milorad Čavić and the American superstar Michael Phelps. Along with these two champions, the following also excelled in the event: Pablo Morales, Denis Pankratov, Lars Frolander, Michael Klim, Ian Crocker. The results of the Olympic Games finalists progressed under the impact of various factors. A descriptive analysis of the tested parameters with all 100m dolphin kick finalists shows that there is the greatest variance (CV%) in the following values: the final result (FR), total swimming speed (TSS), start reaction time (SRT), star time (ST), stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), swimming efficiency (SE), overtake time at 50m (OT50), turn time (TT), finish time (FT), age (AGE) and anthropometric height (AH) and weight (AH), (Table 1). We can conclude from this analysis that the morphology of the butterfly swimmers has changed throughout time and that it is very different in finalists. The increasing of these measures has probably conditioned the decreasing of frequency, length and efficiency of the stroke, and thus also caused a more rational swimming technique. The straight swimming time (SST) has improved less from the final result, which indicates the fact that the result has changed by way of improving of various technical elements: start time (ST), turn time (TT), finish time (FT) and overtake time at 50m (OT50). The parameters which have the most impact on the improving of results have been singled out by the application of the standard statistical procedure by regression analysis (Diagram 1). The variables which very significantly impact the result are the following: total swimming speed (TSS), overtake time at 50m (OT50), turn time (TT) and finish time (TT). The parameters which have less impact on the improving of results are the following: speed of straight swimming (SSS), start time (ST) and anthropometric height (AH). The variables of straight swimming time (SST), stroke frequency (SF), stroke length (SL), swimming efficiency (SE), start reaction (SR) and anthropometric weight (AW) have no significant impact on swimming results. We can conclude from this analysis that results with 100m butterfly swimmers are improved the most by the following: + 47

48 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 perfecting the turn, improving the initial speed at 50m, improving the initial speed at 15m (underwater swimming) and working on anaerobic skills which are projected towards a greater finish speed. The height of the dolphin kick swimmer has increased and has a significant impact on the result (by way of a more rational and efficient carrying out of the stroke) from anthropometric weight (Meškovska, 2000). By applying the variance analysis (Diagram 2) in the analyzed Olympic period, the variability for the following parameters was established: final result (FR) mostly in the periods ; and , total swimming speed (UBP) mostly in the periods ; and , speed of straight swimming (SSS) mostly in the period and the straight swimming time (SST) mostly in the period , straight swimming time (SST), start reaction time (SRT) mostly in the period and , start time (ST) mostly in the period , overtake time at 50m (OT50) mostly in the and , turn time (TT) mostly in the period and finish time (FT) and anthropometric weight (AW) mostly in the period The variables which changed significantly less in the examined period were the following: stroke length (SL), swimming efficiency (SE), anthropometric weight (AW). The stroke frequency (SF) and age (AGE) did not change significantly. CONCLUSION The Olympic Games represent the peak of any top athlete s career. In the 100m dolphin kick, where there is much competition and the result and ranking in the finale depend on a series of details which determine who was placed in the finale and who won a medal. Competitive analysis undoubtedly helps us in the evaluation and analysis of swimmer parameters in contests. The results will also depend on the quality and speed of the carrying out of these parameters. In the 100m butterfly or dolphin kick, the result significantly depends on the quality of carrying out of the start, the turn and entering the finish, as well 48 +

49 V. Marković: ANALYSIS OF THE 100M BUTTERFLY (DOLPHIN KICK) SWIMMING EVENT AT THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE PERIOD FROM 1996 TO 2008 as the overtake time at 50m. Results in this event have been improving increasingly and progress in the technical and technological parameters is obvious. A scientific approach is increasingly being applied to sports and thus training technology, as well as the results themselves, are sure to progress in the future (Ahmetović and Matković, 1995). + 49

50 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 REFERENCES 1. Ahmetović, Z. i Matković, I. (1995). Тeorija plivanja. Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. 2. Colwin, M. C. (1992). Swimming into 21 st century. Illinois-USA: Leisure Press. 3. Maglischo, W.E (2003). Swimming fastest. Toronto: Mayfield Publishing Company. 4. Marković, V. (2010). Analiza šest plivačkih disciplina muškaraca na olimpijskim igrama u periodu Doktorska disertacija. Beograd: Alfa Univerzitet-Fakultet za menadžment u sportu. 5. Mason, B. & Jim, F. (2000). Sydney Olimpic Games 2000 (Swimming officiel results book). Sydney: IOC. 6. Meškovska, N. (2000). Vlijaneto na nekoi biomehanički parametri vrz rezultatite vo individualnite disciplini od ženskoto plivanje na OI vo Atlanta 1996 godina. Magisterski trud. Skopje: Fakultet fizičke kulture. 7. Meškovska, N., Naumovski, M., Popovski, D. & Popovski, A. (1997). Regresiska analiza na relevantnite parametri za uspešnost vo disciplina 200 delfin- ženski na OI vo Atlanta Skopje: Fizička kultura 1-2, Popovski, A., Naumovski, M., Popovski, D. & Meškovska, N. (1997). Relacii među nekoi relevantni pokazateli za uspešnost vo disciplina 100 delfin- maški na OI vo Atlanta Skopje: Fizička kultura 3-4, IOC, Subcomision on Biomehanical and Phyziology (1996). Competition analyses of swimming events on Olimpic Atlanta. 10. IOC, Subcomision on Biomehanical and Phyziology (2004). Competition analyses of swimming events on Olimpic 2004, Athina. 50 +

51 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Scientific work review THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS UDK 005:796 Еmiliја Mаrkоvić 1 Faculty of Teacher Training, Prizren-Leposavić, Serbia Mоmir Grаhоvаc Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia Dаnicа Piršl Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, Niš, Serbia Abstract: Management represents the function which consists of several roles such as planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. It is present in different human activities, as well as in sport. There are different approaches and based on them, different management styles. Each of them is appropriate in some situation. There are also possible reasons for making a distinction between management and leadership. In this article, we will analyze the forms of power, the mentioned management styles and try to specify in which situation each style is most convenient. Related to this, we will determine the question of compatibility between coaches and athletes which is very important for the functioning of the sport group and for achieving success. Key words: coach, athlete, leadership, management style, coach-athlete compatibility INTRODUCTION When we are speaking about any kind of the organization, either formal or informal, one of the main questions is the question of leadership. Leadership is related to management, and it can even be said that along with vision, the mission etc., leadership is realized through management. Management is the 1 * emamma@live.com + 51

52 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 process of influencing other people to behave in the direction of fulfilling the goals of organization. But also, it is very important for a manager, especially in the field of sport, to have the ability of influencing others to change, to develop themselves, to learn and to become self-responsible. Thus, the job of a manager is to motivate people to behave in the direction of achieving the given goals. A well-motivated person has clearly defined goals and takes actions which he or she expects will lead to a realization of goals (Thomson, 2000: 78). Sport can be defined as the social institution imbued with an educational game aimed at a physical and spiritual development of personality (Zec, 2011). The athlete is a person with a high level of skills in a sport, or the potential to realize it and also someone who is engaged in formal, serious and structured competition (Dosil, 2008). This is a definition of professional engagement in sport, but there is also the recreational one which is available to anyone by the free will of a person. There are two global kinds of sport: individual and collective. One can assume that there is the need to develop different ways of thinking, behaving and motivation. In one case, it is very important to be independent, and this is the precondition for any individual sport. In the other case, the importance is labeled by cooperation which is unavoidable in collective sports. But, in both cases, there is a special significance of the need for achievement. So, the task of the manager, the coach or the captain, is to develop the need for autonomy or cooperation, and definitely the need for competence. His management style has to be adapted to the sport in which he is the leading person, to the persons being led and to the particular situation, like the position and aspirations of the player or the team. THE ISSUE OF POWER Every management is based on some form of power. The power represents the ability of influencing the decisions, attitudes and behavior of other people. Managers do not have to apply their power, sometimes the awareness of others that someone has power and that it can be used is as efficient as power itself. Different authors are talking about different forms of power. Wreen and Voich (1994) affirm the existence of two kinds of power: formal authority, which refers to the right of making decisions and has a legitimate basis and is related to the position, not to a person. And, informal authority, which is based on a charismatic person whom followers are led by. This kind of authority does not have a legitimate foundation, it is not established on given authorization. Covey (2000) claims that there are three different types of power: the power of coercion, based on fear. The leader has fear that he might not be obeyed, and the followers have the fear that their actions will be sanctioned. This kind of power is the reactive one and unstable. When the leader disappears, the power disappears also, and the energy of followers can be directed to 52 +

53 Е. Mаrkоvić, M. Grаhоvаc, D. Piršl: THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS destruction; practical power is based on the promised privileges for expected behavior, and on the feelings of equality and justice. The followers follow the leader until they are convinced that they will be adequately rewarded. This power is also reactive, but the reactions are mainly positive, because, in this case, there is more the influence of someone s willing than control. But, the behavior in such situation is more individual than team, because the essence is in an individual perception of the interest, and the relation lasts until both sides are satisfied; justified power is based on trust and the quality of uniqueness of any relation, i.e. both sides respect and trust each other. The consequences of following the leader do not have an importance for followers. The influence of the leader is proactive and represents a continuous decision-making based on the existing values. Similarly, Lee (1998) wrote about the power of the force which uses fear to establish control, which is the foundation of this kind of power. It uses repressive means and blocks the expression of the follower s abilities; the power of the benefit is based on exchange, honesty, free will, independency and the realization of the interests of both sides. Every participant can leave this relation if he perceives that the relation is not suitable any longer; the power of the principals is based on honor, respect, and trust which is above the benefit exchange. It leads to an active life, ethical behavior, self-control and transformation. It also reinforces initiative and produces a mutual dependency through synergy. The values and aspirations of the leader and followers are the same. We presume that in the case of sport, it is very important for the players to share the same attitudes, values and aspirations with their leader. The formal or legitimate kind of power cannot lead to the success of an individual or team player. Synergy is what can provide the success. Mayo says: The most efficient group is not the one which consists of the most efficient individuals, but the one which gives the best results in the interaction of its individuals... It is not enough that the individual represents quality, he should also display quality in cooperation with the ones with whom he is advancing (Milojević, 2004: 95). Moreover, the team which is combined in the optimal way is the one in which there exists a synthesis of not only sports but also the human values of the team members, when they are directed toward each other not only as competitors, but as whole persons (Paranosić, 1982). All energies, efforts and ambitions gathered in one represents a key factor of making progress which is the ultimate goal, especially in professional sport. MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP Reviewing the existing literature gives us different concepts about the relationship between management and leadership. For some authors, leading is just an integrative part of management which is directed toward the follower s + 53

54 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 behavior, while other authors consider leadership a wider area than management. Usually, it is said that managers make effort to do things in the right way, while leaders try to do the right things. Management represents the function which has as its goal to provide, distribute and use human effort and physical resources in an efficient way for achieving some goals (Wreen & Voich, 1994). It deals with control, logistic and efficiency. Leadership is the use of a noncoercive influence to direct and coordinate the activities of group members to meet the goal (Jarvis, 2004). But, even divided, it seems that both of these roles should consist of the aim of achieving the goals. As in many other activities, in sport it is also very important to be capable of making and communicating vision (leadership), but also of realizing that vision through the functions of management (planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling). For a moment, we will go back to the issue of formal and informal power. One can have a formal position and formal power, but they do not have to be accepted by group members. This is a pretty destructive position from the point of view of sport functioning and success. The most powerful is informal power because it means that the person is viewed and accepted as the true leader. This is the reason that the optimal way of choosing the leader comes from the process of group structuring in which one or several persons emerge as individuals who, with their behavior, contribute to more successful common goals achieving. Lazarević says: The person who practically helps and contributes to a more successful functioning of the group is perceived as the leader. Such a person allows achieving of the common goals and facilitates the gratification of individual needs and that is why he or she strongly attracts the other group members (Lazarević, 1987: 195). Leadership has several components (Dirkes et al., 2001): Leadership is a social process The main quality of this process is the influence which can be realized in different ways, by persuasive eloquence or personal example The process includes the interaction of the participants in which everybody is a leader and a follower, at the same time. Such interaction creates a two-way influencing process between the leader and followers The process has different results - the most obvious in the achieving of the group goals, but there are also such consequences as for example the obligating of the person to the group and its goals, strengthening of group cohesion and fortifying or changing of the group culture Leadership has its principles and they are the following: integrity, effective communication, authority and related responsibility, positive mental attitudes, respect for the followers, constancy of the goal, team work, effective resources management, fact based decision-making and self-responsibility. The 54 +

55 Е. Mаrkоvić, M. Grаhоvаc, D. Piršl: THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS personal characteristics of the leaders are the following: emotional stability and self-control, adaptability, initiative, courage, readiness to undertake risk, resoluteness and persistence, ethical behavior, methodical thinking, confidence, permanent learning and self-development, positive energy, trustfulness, and synergy. If we are speaking about top sports results, it is hard to imagine that they could be achieved without clear vision and the leader s aspiration. But, top sports also include a high level of discipline, so the managerial function of control is very important as well. We have the impression that planning, organizing, coordinating is the exclusive task of the sport manager in the functioning of sport organizations. While they are active, athletes do not have an interest for participating in the managing of the team and that is the consequence of the dominant authoritarian treatment to which they are exposed from the earliest days of sport activity in different clubs (Havelka & Lazarević, 2011). Finally, we can mention that the concepts of managing and leading are similar to the differentiation of transactional and transformational leadership. While transactional leadership is close to the traditional viewing of management and represents the position where the managers motivate followers to behave as it is expected in exchange for the price, transformational leadership comes when adaptation is insufficient and when there is a need for great changes in everyone s mind. This is the process of getting a commitment in the context of common goals and vision. While transactional leadership can be functional in a stable situation when an athlete or a team has satisfying achievements, in a situation when there is failure and there is a need for change, transformational leadership is a better solution. MANAGEMENT APPROACHES AND STYLES From the beginning of leadership reconsideration at the end of the 19th century, there have emerged few approaches about leadership and different management styles based on them. The first approach was based on personality traits and it dealt with the identification and measuring of the traits which differentiate good managers from bad ones. Leadership traits are relatively stable personality dispositions such as intelligence, aggressiveness or independence. Thus, the traits found in all successful leaders were treated as universal ones. The leader was treated as a remarkable person who possesses such traits that makes him a remarkable person, different from the other group members. He is characterized by charisma, active intelligence and strong motivation (Havelka & Lazarević, 2011). He also has a high social intelligence and a wide range of practical social skills. The main problem with this approach is neglecting the situational factors. + 55

56 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 The second approach is the behavioral approach which is directed toward the acting and behaving of successful managers which makes them different from unsuccessful ones. The main question is, what should the manager do? This approach suggests that if one can reinforce desirable behavior and eliminate an undesirable conduct, one will be able to lead people to do what one wants, without any resistance. Established were autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire management styles based on this approach. The authoritarian leader makes all the decisions on his/her own and expects complete obedience from the group members. The advantage of this style in sports is that team members can be directed towards purposeful actions even when they are stressed, exhausted or disillusioned (Jarvis, 2004). However, they can have problems with motivating themselves in the absence of the leader. A democratic leader takes into account the views of the group members when making decisions. In sport, it can be a very successful management style, but it is not suitable when rapid decision-making is required. A laissez-faire leader leaves to the group members to make their own decisions, without interfering. In most cases, the result of this style is weaker and team members can have a problem motivating themselves. Some other styles were also based on the behavioral approach as directive and participative management, management based on the structure initiation and based on understanding people; concept of the managerial net, etc., but in the essence of these different styles is still an autocratic, democratic and liberal management style. The third approach is the contingency approach and related to it, the situational approach. A successful leader in one situation may not be successful in other situations (Cox, 1998). So, no management style is universally the best, but it should be determined considering the characteristics of the task, the personality traits of the followers, their behavior and characteristics of the environment. The management style should be adapted to the conditions of the unique situation. Typical for this approach is Fiedler s contingency theory. According to it, the success of leadership depends on the characteristics of the leader and the situation in which he is leading. Fiedler has identified two categories of the leaders: those who are task oriented and those who are person oriented. Task-oriented managers first take into consideration the likelihood of accomplishing the tasks and they dislike ineffective team members. Person-oriented managers place value on the team members despite their lack of contribution in achieving the task at the moment. Both categories of managers are effective under different circumstances. Under very favorable or very unfavorable circumstances, task-oriented managers get better results. When the situation is very unfavorable, the group is asking for directive management as such a situation brings insecurity and people are aware that a difficult situation requires good organization and discipline. In a very favorable situation 56 +

57 Е. Mаrkоvić, M. Grаhоvаc, D. Piršl: THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS a person-oriented manager will be even more directed toward people, so the task could be neglected. Only a medium favorableness of the situation allows the person-oriented management style to be effective. Cox (2007) suggests that both functions should be satisfied in sport, so a coach should know how to recognize players personality dispositions and should work on their weaknesses, alone or with the help of an assistant. If the coach is task-motivated, his/her assistant might provide a personal touch. A coach should also work on improving the favorableness of the situation. The path-goal theory emphasizes the needs and goals of subordinated athletes. The leader is a facilitator who helps athletes to realize their goals. This is done by rewarding subordinates for goal achievement and increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction. Finally, there are several leadership styles and it is on the leader to choose one of them, while the efficiency of players depends on the right choice. So, the leader in sport should be open for different opportunities and should adapt his/her management style to concrete circumstances and situations. THE COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN COACH AND ATHLETES In their job, coaches have several roles and fulfill several functions. Milojević cites the following roles: the role of the father figure, which is strongly emotional, as young athletes tend to symbolically seek the father in the personality of the coach (Milojević, 2004). They are submissive, and they expect the coach to resolve their problems; the role of the older brother appears when the coach and athlete are closer in age. An even better situation is if the coach was a top athlete, because then the generation gap can be compensated by authority; the role of the mage-coach is the charismatic one. This role belongs to coaches who had exclusive results, can deal with many different situations, can make changes and have a strong suggestive influence on the team members; a professor-coach insists on learning and exercising and the basis of his authority is high professional results. There is no emotional closeness and his relations with team members are strictly conventional. One of the very important factors of leader success and the success of the team is the compatibility between the coach and the athlete. Besides this, team cohesion and a positive climate is the prerequisite for sports success. So, a good relationship and mutual understanding between athletes and coaches is of the crucial importance. Jowet describes the coach-athlete relationship as a situation in which the coach and athlete s emotions, thoughts and behaviors are interdependent (Cockerill, 2002). A compatible coach-athlete dyad is characterized by good, honest and free communication, rewarding behavior from the coach and athlete for effort and an efficient performance, mutual respect and appreciation, and positive feelings (Cox, 2007). An incompatible dyad represents the + 57

58 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 relationship in which there is no effective or open communication, there is a lack of rewarding behavior, and a feeling of isolation from each other. Quality interaction and mutual respect lead to an athlete s satisfaction and improved performance. In such an interaction, there is feedback, and an athlete gets information about his/her performance and the reward for a good performance which has an influence on self-esteem. In the other case, an athlete uses the information about unsuccessful performance to correct it, which leads to improvement. As the factors of compatibility, Cockerill (2002) notes the following: closeness which concerns the emotional tone of the relationship and is expressed through the depth of attachment and connection; co-orientation, which is expressed by establishing a common ground in the course of the partnership, by effective communication in which an exchanging of experiences is happening; complementarity, which refers to cooperation and a perceiving of both sides that interaction is cooperative and effective. For all the named reasons, coaches should work on establishing a twoway communication between themselves and athletes. If athletes feels that the coach values their efforts, they will feel comfortable in such a communication (Cox, 1998). It also means that they share the same attitudes, values and aspirations, which are of a great influence on effective results. CONCLUSION In all aspects of human activity and business, the function of management should be realized. Management in sports represents the applying of the management process in the field of sports. Sport has several different forms. It can be recreational or professional, individual or collective. But it always requires the function of management. There are different management styles which are based on different forms of power. But no style is universally the best. A management style should be adapted to the situation, that is, to the people whom the manager is dealing with and to the existing circumstances. Also, there is a need for different interventions on different professional levels, in individual or collective sports. There is no single intervention model that serves all athletes for all purposes, or all competitive situations (Dosil, 2008: 68). Thus, the task of a sports manager is to evaluate every situation, opportunity, to predict the possible consequences before making a decision about how to act. The performance results depend on such managerial behavior. 58 +

59 Е. Mаrkоvić, M. Grаhоvаc, D. Piršl: THE SPECIFIC FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS REFERENCES 1. Cockerill, I. (2002). Solutions in Sport Psychology. Holborn: Thomson. 2. Covey, R.S. (2000). Principi uspešnog liderstva. Beograd: Grmeč. 3. Cox, H.R. (1998). Sport Psychology- Concepts and Applications. Boston: McGraw Hill. 4. Cox, H.R. (2007). Sport Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill. 5. Dierkes, M., Berthoin Antal, A., Child, J., & Nonaka, I. (2001). Organizational Learning and Knowledge. London, New York: Oxford University Press Ince. 6. Dosil, J. (2008). The Sport Psychologist s Handbook; A Guide for Sport- Specific Performance Enhancement. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 7. Havelka, N., & Lazarević, Lj. (2011). Psihologija menadžmenta u sportu. Beograd: Visoka sportska i zdravstvena škola. 8. Jarvis, M. (2004). Sport Psychology. London and New York: Routledge. 9. Lazarević, Lj. (1987). Psihološke osnove fizičke kulture. Beograd: IPRO Partizan. 10. Lee, B. (1998). Moć principa- Časno uticanje. Beograd: Grmeč. 11. Milojević, A. (2004). Psihologija sporta i vežbanja. Niš: SVEN. 12. Paranosić, V. (1982). Psihologija sporta. Beograd: NIP Partizan. 13. Tomson, R. (2000). Veština rukovodjenja. Beograd: Clio. 14. Wreen, D., & Voich, D. (1994). Menadžment - Proces, struktura i ponašanje. Beograd: Grmeč. 15. Zec, N. (2011). Management in Sport, I International Symposium Engeneering Management and Competitiveness 2011 (EMC 2011), June 24-25, 2011, Zrenjanin, Serbia + 59

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61 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, No. 4, 2012, pp Professional paper BALANCE, SPACE AND TIME AS SEGMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF THE COORDINATION ABILITIES OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS UDK Nenad Trunić 1 College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia Abstract: The demands of present-day basketball include the speed of carrying out technical and tactical elements. In game situations, what is needed is a shorter reaction time on the part of the players and an improved ability of anticipating. To that end, present-day basketball needs a wide perceptive field, an immediate inner perception and an immediate choice of an adequate motor response in time, space and the player s given situation. This paper gives a review of the following demands in the training and competitive process of basketball players: precision in temporal and spatial parameters as the first condition for an adequate resolving of all exercises, the using of the appropriate strength and speed in technical performing and efficiency, as a specific ability to synthesize all the demands in motor performing. In the future, basketball will increasingly be infused by perceptive stimuli, with a tendency to shift from motor preparation to a training method which stimulates the analysis of the situation and choice of an adequate motor response. Contemporary training technology demands clear and precise scientific implications regarding the planning, programing and realization of basketball training sessions, which is the basic contents and topic of this paper. Key words: proprioception, balance, movement control, coordination of movement in time and space (timing), functional training in basketball 1 * nenad.trunic@vss.edu.rs + 61

62 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 INTRODUCTION Each movement in basketball is not just a simple deploying of certain body parts, but a system or synthesis of spatial, temporal, rhythmical, kinetic and dynamic parameters of movement, which the proprioceptive system links with the relevant information component. The interaction of the motor memory of basketball players and the current information on the structure of movements form a situation of constant changes and the evolving of every subsequent movement. Information on the movement of the body or its parts in time and space are obtained from the following: external receptors - which receive and transmit signals or stimuli from the external organs (the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin), internal receptors - they receive and transmit signals from the internal organs (blood vessels, inner ear, which also gives an emotive component to the experiencing of movement) and proprioceptors, which transmit signals from the neuro-muscular system (the regulators of muscle tension or tone), and from the Golgi tendon organ (which controls the tone of tendons) to the joint receptors, which inform the player about the position of the relevant joints and creates the feeling of moving. Where time parameters of movement are concerned, there is no clear picture of the sources of the time segment of movement and the paths of its transmission. There is no receptor specialized for the time perception of movement parameters and their transmission. Scientists assure that every piece of information feedback on movement from external and internal receptors has its time component, which corresponds with the spatial facts about movement. The ability of a basketball player to carry out the technical and tactical elements precisely with and without a ball is determined by motor memory or technical training and the ability to adapt to new, variable and dynamic situations. An improved performance is, due to the mentioned reasons, in a direct correlation with the control of internal processes and the speed of recognizing current situations in time and space. Control quality of the mentioned type of balance or, to be even more precise, the ability of imbalance control (reestablishing the disrupted balance as quickly as possible) in situational conditions and with a high factor of instability (the conditions of the game, body position, contact with the opponent or the teammate, the dynamic features of movement, the presence of the ball, etc.) is conditioned by a mutual interacting of the visual, vestibular and proprioceptive mechanism. THE VISUAL ASPECTS OF CARRYING OUT A MOVEMENT The sense of sight is made up of a system which is relevant for the receiving of information on the nature of the anticipated movement as well as spatial components which impact its carrying out. Along with this, the crucial 62 +

63 N. Trunić: BALANCE, SPACE AND TIME AS SEGMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF THE COORDINATION ABILITIES OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS significance of the sense of sight is reflected in the function of controlling the precision of movements or the technical-tactical elements in basketball. The visual parameters of implementing movements which are relevant for basketball can be viewed from several aspects: a) Central vision or assessment, which is the ability of the basketball players, in the case of centrally set aims or objects (those which can be found in the frontal plane), to differ between two small separated points, regardless of whether they are in a state of rest or movement. An example from the game is carrying out free throws or all kinds of ball passing in a frontal plane. The central assessment in basketball is responsible, largely, for controlling the game as well as the immediate opponent. b) The sense of depth of the visual field or stereoscopy is responsible for recognizing distance or the space between two objects, or spatial distribution, which relates to the assessment of the distance of one object from another or the object from the player (the ball, the opponent, the teammate, referee, court lines, etc.). It is relevant to say that the assessing of the position and dynamics of movement of the objects in the perception of height also belongs to this segment of visual sensations. c) Peripheral vision is defined as the ability of the player to see as large a space in front and adjacently as possible via peripheral vision, without moving the eyes from the centrally fixed position. The ability of peripheral vision or the breadth of the perceptive field is very significant in the perception of game situations, in the assessing of moving objects (the ball, teammate, opponent, referee) and it directly affects the ability of predicting or anticipation, which is a usual feature of all top basketball players. Good peripheral vision and the perception of the visual field enables players a better choice of solutions for tricky situations and shortens the reaction time (which is very important for basketball, is a dynamic game consisting of speedy changes in time and space). The significance of the sense of sight is reflected in the ability, based on the image being received externally, to carry out a comparison with the previously experienced visual sensation in the perceptive field (Trunić, 2007) and to choose an adequate response from the movement memory bank. Practically speaking, the previous situations from the game are recognized and an adequate solution is produced, as well as shortening the time of performing a movement. When the visual images reach the eye receptors, they are transformed into light stimuli, which are transmitted via the nerve endings to the core of the cerebrum which chooses the response to the given stimulus. Optical analyses of the game situations and the choice of responses are conditioned by the genetic features of the players and the ability to analyze the perceptive field in depth and height (Brad, 1986). It has been proven (Brad & + 63

64 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Fleury, 1986) that the upper left zone of the visual field was better analyzed than the other zones of the visual field, that most players were unable to perceive with one glance more than 5 to 7 objects in the visual field, that the best angle for receiving information in the visual field was between in relation to the horizontal line and that the decreasing of the visual field in the central segment is not a problem, while the disrupting of the peripheral visual field dislocates the proper performing of some technical element. The same authors maintain that in determining the speed and precision of assessment in the visual field, the angle under which the object is perceived is the most relevant. Research confirms that players choose more precise and quicker responses when objects are set under a certain angle (32-40 ) in relation to a direct perceiving at eye level. The ability to assess the trajectory of the ball moving in space has been the topic of numerous research papers and there is a consensus that the precision and speed of receiving information on an object in the visual field can be drastically improved by adequate training (40-45%). The mentioned data confirms that perceptive and motor experience has a decisive role in the speed of perceptive analysis and the choice of a motor response. Also relevant is the need for various or multiform stimuli for improving the capacities of the perceptive and motor memory, that is, in practice, there is a need to apply exercises to develop coordination abilities in which there are variations in regards to time and space, with an accentuating of various angles of ball reception and different starting positions in the improving of technicaltactical skills THE PROPRIOCEPTIVE SYSTEM Proprioceptive training is a segment of the preparation of basketball players which should be an inevitable component of the training process in the aim of developing coordination abilities of basketball players and as a means of preventing injuries (Trunić, 2007). If an injury occurs nonetheless, proprioception can be used in the process of convalescence and as a means of recovery. The ability of the locomotor system to respond to specific and often extraordinary static and dynamic stimuli is called proprioception (Potach & Borden, 2000). Simply put, proprioception implies the sense of one s body position in space. Proprioceptive exercises were in the past used for rehabilitation while nowadays they have become an almost inevitable part of preventive and developmental conditional training. Today, there are other terms for this type of training as well. One of them is PVV (Proprioceptive-Vestibular-Visual) training which stresses the relevance of the lines which are the proprioceptors, the center for balance in the inner ear and the visual analyzer. Another term is sensory-motor training, and implies setting athletes in a position by means of retaining balance. Also used is the term neuromuscular stabilization

65 N. Trunić: BALANCE, SPACE AND TIME AS SEGMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF THE COORDINATION ABILITIES OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS training (Clark, 2001). We know that today in top basketball the demands are increasingly higher and players are submitted to a lot of exertion, and thus there are greater possibilities for injuries. If a basketball player s body is set in a number of training situations which have the aim to stimulate the activating of proprioceptors, this will allow an optimal reaction in urgent situations which could cause injuries (Jukić, 2003.). The proprioceptive system obtains information from muscles, tendons and joints by way of specific receptors and is able to quickly transmit information about movements to the central nervous system and the spinal cord. Also, the proprioceptive abilities largely determine the muscular response. Changes and the adjustment of the body s position (postural responses) are directly conditioned by the quality of the proprioceptive organs. However, proprioception is often overlooked when regarding injuries of the ankle and the knee. When there is an injury, it is usually damage of the fast-adapting and slow-adapting receptors and if these receptors are unused for a while, they vanish. It is the same case with older people, and thus proprioception is very relevant for every age. If the injury is repeated, balance is disrupted and with repeated inactivity the receptors peter out. Thus, the graver the injury, the greater is the loss of proprioception in the injured segment. Therefore, there is a difference in the concept of proprioception between the conscious and subconscious components (Riva & Trevisson, 2000). The unconscious component relates to the ability of the core of the cerebrum to respond without awareness to the pressure made on the joints during the carrying out of movements, while the conscious component of proprioception creates responses to the visual, vestibular and peripheral receptors stimuli, by means of an appropriate activity of the central nervous system. The three fundamental levels of control are: the spinal reflex, the core of the cerebrum and a cognitive planning of a response. From the mentioned data it is clear that the control of specific movements in basketball determines the success of players. The ability to realize a precise level of resistance and precision of certain body segments in time and space increase with the competitive level of athletes. In that sense, it should be mentioned that the degenerating of the body position during the carrying out of technical elements in difficult conditions also depends on the neuro-muscular traits of the basketball players and that, even in the segment of carrying out simple technical elements, the stability of the nervous system is the factor which distinguishes the more successful players from the less successful ones (Latash, 1998). THE VESTIBULAR SYSTEM The vestibular system is the last system enacted during movements and choosing a motor response as it has the most perfect activation system. The late inclusion of the vestibular system is a positive occurrence, as it practically + 65

66 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 allows the visual and proprioceptive system the choice of a solution in the postural and dynamic movement segment. The quality of performing mostly depends on the efficiency of the visual and proprioceptive system. In the initial stages of the movement, visual information dominates, while proprioceptive sensibility appears as the decisive factor in carrying out complex movements and a precise performing of complex motor activities. The system of postural control is made up of the following: the visual system-sense of sight (the most accurate), the proprioceptive system (the quickest) and the vestibular system (the last to be included in the carrying out of the movement). EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING SPECIFIC COORDINATION IN BASKETBALL It is without doubt that the first condition for realizing the said exercises is the good health of the players and a gradual increase of demands, according to elementary didactic principles. All the exercises of this type should be carried out at the initial part of the training, in conditions of an optimal functional preparedness of the bone-joint and ligament-muscular system and an optimal stimulation of the central nervous system. Exercise number1: AIM: postural control of the body EXERCISE CONTENTS: with support first on both feet and then only one on the balance board or dribbling the ball (with the stronger then the weaker hand: dribbling with two balls at the same time, alternatively, dribbling with the basket and tennis balls, as well as handball, medicine ball or ball for volleyball). The more advanced levels of this exercise are: to work without visual control, with a changing of hands, touching the floor with a hand which is not dribbling, change of dribbling hand along with a tilting of the body in all planes, change of height of the center of gravity with a transiting into the position of a half-squat or a deep squat and similar. DOSING: series from 10 to 20 seconds of working out with a break twice as long than the activity time (the ratio of work-rest is 1:2) and the number 66 +

67 N. Trunić: BALANCE, SPACE AND TIME AS SEGMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF THE COORDINATION ABILITIES OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS of series is from 2 to 8 depending on the aim of the training (developmental, sustaining, preventive). Exercise number 2: AIM: to improve a specific balance through continued losing and regaining balance. EXERCISE CONTENTS: during resting on both or one feet, pass the ball along with applying various techniques (two hands from the chest, one raised hand, one behind the back, etc.); change the angles of passing the ball, the plane of receiving the ball, the strength and speed of passing, the type of ball (ball for tennis, basketball, medicine ball, etc.). The exercise can be done in pairs or in threes, at greater distances, as an elementary or additional exercise or in the break between technical and tactical exercises. DOSING: 2-8 series at 10 do 30 seconds with a break twice as long than the activity time. Exercise number 3: AIM: a continued maintaining of balance during a side movement (in a sagittal plane). EXERCISE CONTENTS: a quick side movement in a defense basketball left-right distance or with disparate work intervals with stopping and maintaining of amortization. DOSING: 4-6 series lasting from 5-20 seconds with the ratio work-break, 1:2 or 1:

68 Sport Science & Practice, Vol. 2, N o 4 Exercise number 4: 5-10 seconds in the ratio work-break 1:3. AIM: maintaining a balance along with the resistance of the partner and an elastic band while moving in all directions. EXERCISE CONTENTS: moving in all direction: leftright, forwards-backwards, diagonally forwards-backwards along with the resistance of an elastic band in counterdirection from the partner s resistance. DOSING: 4-6 series lasting CONCLUSION Present-day basketball is based on demands for a greater speed of executing technical-tactical elements. Also, a shorter time of the players reaction is demanded, as well as an enhanced ability to anticipate. The ideal for players in present-day basketball should be a wide perceptive field, an instantaneous internal perception and an instantaneous choice of an adequate motor response in time, space and the player s given situation. Such demands impose as a prerequisite a high level of muscular abilities, a strong and stable nervous system, a high IQ and technical and tactical training, as well as a speed of analytical thinking which is supported by neuro-muscular qualities for quick reactions. The training must be orientated towards exercises which stimulate quick reactions in time and space and which are carried out in an appropriate rhythm. An improvement of motor response abilities is possible with the increase of the specific nature of training contents, from all aspects: neuro-muscular, technical-tactical, sociological and psychological. Training is considered a process adapted to metabolic, bioenergetics and biomechanical demands of the game. The said abilities of a player would result in him/her being at the right place and in the right time at a match and the ability to find the tactically best solution along with an optimal consumption of strength and speed. This concept is clear in theory and in practice it is possible to realize by adhering to the following demands of the training process: precision 68 +