Instructional Goals in Psychology Psychology students Understanding of the Scientific Foundation of the Discipline

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1 Instructional Goals in Psychology Psychology students Understanding of the Scientific Foundation of the Discipline Eric Amsel Weber State University What shouldbe the goal of instruction in psychology? Using onlycontent knowledge as a goal is a problem. Knowledge in Psychology is dynamic not fixed. Empirical, conceptual, and methodological changes in discipline. Content knowledge may not ensure understanding of the discipline or acquisition of scientific values and attitudes. Broad failure to change popular misconceptions of psychology despite giving psychology away (Rosen, Glasgow, & Moore, 2002). APA characterized instructional goals as general and person, including knowledge, skills, and values APA goal specifies an identity as a scientific psychologist Thinking like a Scientific Psychologist This identity work promotes learning to think like a scientific psychologist. Central to instruction in psychology The fundamental goal of education in psychology, which all others follow, is to teach students to think as scientists about behavior (Brewer, 1993) Central to specific learning outcomes (APA 2007). Employ research (design, analysis, and interpretation) skills Exercise critical and creative thinking to solve problems. Apply of psychological principles outside the classroom. Behave ethically and with respect to the values of the discipline. Student Misconceptions Students resist thinking like scientific psychologists because of disciplinary misconceptions The misconceptions are deep, coherent, and resistant to change. The Freud Problem (Griggs, 2003; Stanovich, 2008). Freud best known psychologist to students and most often cited in Introductory Psychology textbooks. Popular but ineffective self-help industry (Rosen, Glasgow, Moore, 2003). Media presentations of the discipline as unscientific. Childhood-based beliefs about mind as intentional and subjective (Bloom & Weisberg, 2007) Everyday folk psychological explanations of behavior. 1

2 Folk Psychology Folk Psychology is a network of beliefs about mind and behavior (D Andrade, 1987). Understand behavior by attributing mental states to oneself and others (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). FP is Intentional: Assumes a rational agent freely acting with respect to its mental states (Bennett, 1991; Dennett, 1971). An agent doeswhat it thinkswill bring about what it wants FP is Subjective: Assumes mind is private, immaterial, eternal, and purposive (Atran, 2003; Bering, 2007; Bloom, 200). Folk Psychology believed to be evolutionarily-shaped, species-specific, and innate (Baron-Cohen, 1999; Bloom, 200). Problems with Folk Psychology Folk Psychology has little scientific status. Challenges by Scientific Psychology to Folk Psychological assumptions that human beings are rational (Gilovich, 1991; Kahneman, 2003; Nisbett & Ross, 1980). can reliably know the contents of their own mind (Andersen, Moskowitz, Blair, & Nosek, 2007; Ericsson & Simon, 1980, 1993; Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). are unbiased when perceiving or inferring the contents of others minds (Pronin, Gilovich, & Ross, 200; Ross, 1977). Folk Psychology is not only false, but also unscientific (Churchland, 1981; Dennett, 1971, 1991; Stich, 1983). Incompatible with explanations in cognitive science and neuroscience (Greenwood 1991; Stich & Ravenscroft, 199). Scientific Psychology Difficult to pinpoint all the shared beliefs of scientific psychologists. A commitment to research which includes a working assumption of scientific determinism. Behavior is predictable. A related assumption of the importance of reliable and systematic measurement. No privileged access to all actual causes of behavior. Acceptance of results of well-controlled research. Support various biological, psychological, and social causes of behavior which may not be known the actor. Measuring Student Misconceptions Given their beliefs and media exposure, students may not agree that Psychology is a science. One measure of such beliefs is the Psychology as a Science Questionnaire (Friedrich, 199). Fifteen statements rated on a 1 (SD) to 7 (SA) scale Psychological research can enable us to anticipate people s behavior with a high degree of accuracy. Research conducted in controlled laboratory settings is essential for understanding everyday behavior. Psychological theories presented in the media should not be trusted unless they are supported by experiments. Reliability: Cohen s Kappa =.79(Friedrich, 199).83 (Amsel, 2008). Validity: Psych instructors score high on PAS(Holmes, 2009) 2

3 Amsel, Ashley, & Baird (In Press) Amsel, Ashley, & Baird (In Press) What do students believe about psychology s status as a science and how does it change? Psychology students (N = 8; % female) from across the curriculum completed the PAS questionnaire during the 10 th week of the semester. The sample included 33% Freshmen, 21% Sophomore, 2% Juniors, and 22% Seniors and were distinguished into those who self-identified as a Major or Potential Psychology Major (N = 11, 37%) Minor or Potential Psychology Minor (N = 77, 18%) Neither Actual nor Potential Psychology Major or Minor (N = 19, %) Students skeptical (PAS M =.18) about Psychology as a science Independent effects of Student Status and Academic Year. PAS Scores. Actual or Potential Majors Actual or Potential Minors Neither Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Academic Year PAS and TIPS Standard Scores Standardized z- score analysis of TIPS (Test of Integrated Process Skills) and PAS scores shows that a stronger belief in psychology as a science emerges after an increase in knowledge about science Knowledge of Science (TIPS) Belief in Psychology as a Science (PAS) Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Mean PAS score was.18 (SD =.77). Mean TIPS score was 71% (SD = 17%). PAS and TIPS Standard Scores Holmes & Beins (2009) conducted a similar study with psychology students at Ithaca College. There were no changes in PAS scores across students at different levels of the curriculum. Students average scores were slightly higher (M = ). There were changes in scientific knowledge as measured by a scientific literacy task. There was a positive correlation between scientific literacy and number of psychology courses taken. There was no correlation between PAS scores and scientific literacy. 3

4 Summary of Research with the PAS The news is not good (Amsel et al., in press; Holmes & Beins, 2009; Friedrich, 199). Students are skeptical that psychology is a science Students weakly agree with propositions which are embraced by their instructors No or minimal changes over the course of years in students beliefs about scientific status of psychology. This effect holds despite students taking research courses. Beliefs about psychology as a science appear not or only distally related to understanding of science. All the reading and lectures on scientific methodology may be irrelevant to students belief that psychology is a science Forms of Conceptual Change How do students revise their beliefs about psychology s status: Views from Science Ed: Psychology students may need to undergo a strong restructuringof their beliefs (Hewson& Hewson, 1992; Posner, et al, 1982; Smith, Caret, & Wiser, 198; Strike & Posner, 1992) Instructor -student miscommunication repaired only after students evaluate and revise disciplinary misconceptions. Psychology students may merely need to expandor reorganizeavailable beliefs and knowledge (Vosnaidou, 199; Smith, DiSessa, & Roschelle, 1993) There is neither an miscommunication between instructors and students nor a formal evaluation-revision process. Amsel et al., (2009) Amsel et al., (2009) Tested strong restructuring position Do students misunderstand their professor s beliefs about psychology as a science? Introductory Psychology students (N = 227; 1% female, 7% freshmen) from one of classes completed the PAS approximately half way through the semester. Students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: : Evaluate each statement from your own personal perspective. Professor: Evaluate each statement from your psychology professor s perspective. Results showed a Perspective effect but no Instructor or interaction effect. PAS Professor score (r =.21) more strongly correlated to anticipated final grade than PAS (r =.18) score PAS Score. Professor Prof A Prof B Prof C Prof D Prof E Prof F Instructor

5 Amsel et al., (2009) Introductory students able to adopt their professor s beliefs about the discipline. The Perspective effect (M diff and Professor =.3) was compatible to the effect of Academic Year (M diff Freshmen and Seniors =.38) The extent that students can adopt their professors beliefs predicts students anticipated course grade. Students not confused about the scientific status of psychology, they just do not totally believe it. Psychology students conceptual change appears to involve a weaker than stronger belief restructuring. Interim Summary I Acquiring psychological knowledge, skills, and values is a key outcome of instruction. The acquisitions amount to acquiring an identity of and learning to think like a scientific psychologist. Students FP (mind as subjective & intentional) conflicts with them adopting SP Students show a weak belief in psychology as a science which is independent of scientific literacy and changes modestly, if at all, with instruction. Students skeptical not ignorant of scientific view. They can adopt their professor s disciplinary beliefs Learning What your Professor Believes Two studies address how students overcome skepticism and adopt their professors beliefs. The studies were designed to addressed two general questions: Do students enter Introductory Psychology classes knowing that their professors think differently than they do about the discipline or do they learn about such differences over the course of semester? Is more factual knowledge about the discipline related to better understanding how a psychology professor thinks? Amsel et al., (In Prep A) When and how do students learn what their professors believe? Introductory Psychology students (N = 10, % female, 1% freshmen) from three different Introductory Psychology classes completed the PAS at the beginning (1 st week) and end (10 th -12 th week) of the semester. Students completed each PAS item in both the and Professor condition. The order of asking for a or Professor response on each item was counterbalanced randomly over participants at each session.

6 Amsel et al., (In Prep A) Amsel et al., (In Prep A) PAS scores were higher at Time 2 than Time 1, higher in the Prof than the Condition, and there was a trend (p =.08) towards greater differences in PAS and Prof scores at Time 1 than 2 PAS Score. Time 1 Time 2 Perspective Prof The importance of adopting Professor s beliefs Adopting their professors beliefs was related to students own internalization of disciplinary beliefs. The extent of increase in PAS score over time was related to students Time 2 Prof scores (r=.1, N= 9, p<.001), independently of Time 1 Prof scores, demographic variables, and academic variables. Students ability to adopt their professor beliefs was related to their academic success. A stepwise multiple regression found that only Time 1 PAS Prof scores predicted students Introductory Psychology final course grade (β =.27, p <.01). Amsel et al., (In Prep B) Amsel et al., (In Prep B) How does knowledge about the discipline affect students ability to think like their professors? Introductory Psychology students (N = 19, % female, % freshmen) from multiple different Introductory Psychology classes were assessed between the 7 th to 10 th week of the semester. Students completed the PAS and a standardized 30-item multiple choice test (MC) assessing general psychology knowledge in either the or Prof condition. The MC test was found to predict final Introductory Psychology grades independently of ACT scores and other demographic variables (Thompson & Zamboanga, 200). MC scores showed no effect of Perspective. PAS scores were affected by MC scores (Median Split M < %) and Perspective, independently of age, sex, interest in the discipline, and class engagement.. Low Knowledge Prof High Knowledge

7 Amsel et al., (In Prep B) Knowledge of the discipline strongly predicted final grade A stepwise multiple regression found that MC scores predicted students Introductory Psychology final course grade (β =.2, p <.01), along with Year in School, Professor, and Class Engagement variables. General psychological knowledge was related to students beliefs about psychology as a science. A significant partial correlation between PAS and MC scores (r =.20 p <.01), independent of perspective, academic, and demographic variables. Interim Summary II Internalizing disciplinary beliefs appears related to students ability to adopt their professors beliefs, despite being skeptical about them. Points to importance of professors modeling their beliefs and supporting students adoption of them. Knowledge about the discipline is related to students ability to adopt of their professor s beliefs and to internalize them. Instruction should involve presenting content informationalong with background beliefs and values that explain why such knowledge is or is not acceptable. Trouble Adopting Professor Beliefs Two more studies explore factors limiting students adoption of their professors beliefs One factor was related to teaching. Does the physical presence of an instructor affect students ability to adopt their professor s beliefs? We looked at PAS performance of students enrolled in online and on-campus Introductory psychology course taught by the same instructor. The other factor was related to the student. Does student age, as an index of their cognitive development affect their ability to adopt their professor s beliefs? Ward & Amsel (unpublished) Does the physical presence of a professor matter in students adopting their professors beliefs? Online (n = 28) and on-campus (n = 8) Introductory Psychology students taught by the same professor completed the PAS condition at about the 8 th week of the semester. The online Introductory Psychology course presented the same material to students as on-campus courses but without the physical presence of the professor. Each student completed the PAS in both the and Professor condition. 7

8 Ward & Amsel (unpublished) High School Students Performance A tendency (p =.09) for students to have higher in PAS scores in the Prof than condition, but only in on-campus classes. Results controlled for demographic and academic variables including ACT scores. The power of the analysis was limited. PAS Score. On-campus Professor Online Is adopting a professor s beliefs related to the students cognitive ability? Entertaining what you think a professor thinks would seem to require a form of hypothetical thinking which younger adolescents may only be acquiring. Study done at Charter High School where I taught an Introductory Psychology class (n = 1) Class was a concurrent enrollment class. Senior (n = 8) and non-senior (n =7) students completed the PAS from their own and their professor s perspective during the 1 st week of class. High School Students Performance Overall students PAS scores were higher in Prof than condition, but there was a tendency (p =.07) for this effect being limited only to seniors. Final grade correlated more strongly with PAS Prof than scores. PAS Score. Non-Seniors Professor Seniors Interim Summary III The studies suggest that students may fail to adequately entertain their professor s beliefs under two conditions: When students have no direct physical access to their professor or her beliefs. This is an analog of teaching only the facts, without explicitly presenting one s own beliefs and attitudes about the discipline. When students are younger and lack the cognitive skills to represent others conflicting beliefs. This is an analog of teaching students who do not do the work to entertain their teachers thinking. 8

9 Implications and Conclusions Instruction in psychology should emphasize meta-instruction: Instructors modeling their disciplinary beliefs for students to internalize Remaining questions concern: Evidence of the role of metainstructionon students internalization of disciplinary beliefs and knowledge We are examining students learning performance when it includes or excludes metainstruction. The causal relation between disciplinary knowledge and beliefs in the conceptual change of students Greater disciplinary knowledge? Ability to adopt professors beliefs and internalize them. 9