Effects of a Mental Training Package on an Endurance Performance

Transcription

1 The Sport Psychologist, 1998,12, O 1998 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. Effects of a Mental Training Package on an Endurance Performance Thomas D. Patrick and Dennis W. Hrycaiko University of Manitoba This study aimed to examine the effects of a mental training package on the performance of a 1600-m run. Participants were 3 male triathletes and 1 male elite runner. A single-subject multiple baseline across individuals design was employed to evaluate the treatment package. Results demonstrated that the mental training package was effective in improving the running performance of the three participants who received intervention. Social validation results were favorable and indicated that participants enjoyed using the mental training package and were pleased with the results. Further, coaches felt that the results were important, especially those for the elite track athlete. Numerous studies have shown that mental skills training is an effective intervention for enhancing athletic performance (e.g., Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990; Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1984). In a review of studies testing the effectiveness of various psychological interventions, Greenspan and Feltz (1989) concluded that educational relaxation-based interventions and remedial cognitive restructuring interventions are effective in improving collegiate and adult athletes' performance in competitive situations. However, Weinberg and Williams (1993) noted that more controlled studies are required before more definitive conclusions can be made. Although evidence supports the use of mental skills training to enhance an athlete's performance, the literature rarely shows that a mental skills training package enhances athletic endurance performance. Athletic endurance performance has most often been examined with regard to distance running. However, rather than looking at mental skills training, most research interest has focused on examining the effects of associative and dissociative mental coping strategies on endurance performance. Initial research focused on comparing the strategies of elite and nonelite runners (Morgan & Pollock, 1977) and experienced and nonexperienced runners (Ungerleider, Golding, Porter, & Thomas D. Patrick is with the Department of Physical Activity and Sport Studies at the University of Winnipeg, 515 Portage Ave., Winnipeg, MB, R3B 2E9, Canada. Dennis W. Hrycaiko is with the Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation Studies at the University of Manitoba, Room 104 Frank Kennedy Building, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada.

2 284 Patrick and Hrycaiko Foster, 1989) as well as those used at different times in a race (Schorner, 1986) and the effect of running intensity on coping strategy (Tammen, 1996). These studies did not utilize an intervention or treatment but simply reported on the relative use of mental coping strategies by runners of varying characteristics or in response to task demands. Associative coping strategies allow runners to focus on internal body sensations, such as breathing, muscle tension, and race strategy. Dissociative coping strategies, such as music, conversations with other runners, or planning speeches, tend to distract a runner from the discomfort or pain of bodily functions while running. The research cited above suggests that associative strategies play an important role in endurance performance. Intuitively, we might conclude that if associative coping strategies help endurance performance, then systematic use of a mental skills training package may significantly benefit a runner. Most of the skills (e.g., imagery rehearsal, self-talk, and relaxation) identified as associative strategies are mental skills that can be improved through systematic training. The mental skills developed would subsequently lead to enhanced performance. In addition, Tammen's (1996) finding that runners' increased use of associative coping strategies as pace intensity increased may have direct implications for individuals who run shorter distances, such as the Olympic mile, because of the race intensity compared to that at longer distances. A primary goal of this study was to examine how well a mental skills training package combining relaxation, imagery rehearsal, self-talk, and goal setting enhanced an endurance performance. The mental skills selected for the package were those most commonly identified in the research literature as contributors to performance enhancement (Wanlin, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Mahon, 1997; Weinberg & Gould, 1995; Williams, 1993; Wolko, Hrycaiko, & Martin, 1993). The task used to assess endurance has varied across studies. Although some association-dissociation researchers (Schorner, 1986; Silva & Appelbaum, 1989) examined the marathon-a task commonly believed to reflect endurance--others (Tammen, 1996) used running distances of 1,500 and 2,300 m to assess these coping strategies. Similarly, Weinberg, Smith, Jackson, and Gould (1984) reported research on running for a specific length of time (e.g., 30 min) and utilizing a task other than running (e.g., leg-lift task). The variety of tasks suggests that utilizing an operational definition of endurance is necessary to completing research on this topic. Endurance may be defined as "the ability to sustain or repeat intense effort" (National Coaching Certification Program, pp ). Physiologically, three distinct energy systems (anaerobic alactic, anaerobic lactic, and aerobic) provide muscles with the energy to sustain or repeat intense effort. According to the definition above, endurance could occur in any of these systems. However, the terms power and capacity are most often used with the anaerobic alactate and anaerobic lactic systems, whereas endurance is used with events that primarily rely on the aerobic system. Most runs involve continuous activity. Therefore, any run 2 2 min is generally considered an endurance event because performance is primarily dependent on the athlete's aerobic energy system. Thus, the energy system employednot the athlete's caliber-is the primary criteria for determining whether an event is an endurance activity. With 75% of the energy for a 1,500-m run derived from the aerobic system (Newsholme, Blomstrand, & Ekblom, 1992), this event is clearly an endurance task. In contrast, the leg-lift task used by Weinberg et al. (1984) is a test of muscular capacity, not endurance.

3 Mental Training Package 285 Beyond these studies, research involving mental skills training and distance running are limited. For example, Burhans, Richman, and Bergey (1988) demonstrated that superior running speeds were attained by runners who utilized mental imagery before running. Likewise, Bull (1989) found some support for using visualization, self-talk, and relaxation strategies to enhance an ultradistance runner's performance. A second goal of the present study was to extend the literature on mental skills training packages and assess their applicability to distance running. Recently, Hrycaiko and Martin (1996) identified several advantages of singlesubject designs for examining treatment packages in applied sport settings. Small sample size is often an initial difficulty in applied research. In an athletic setting, it is often difficult to locate several athletes with the same problem or specific skill needing enhancement. Single-subject designs are useful in that they normally deal with three to five participants (Aeschelman, 1991). Further, in most cases, participants act as their own controls, and all participants receive the intervention. Who would want to be in the control group for a study designed to find effective ways to enhance performance? Identifying athletes to participate in a random or balanced sample is rarely a realistic option from the perspective of sample size or ethics. We encountered both limitations in the present study. In addition, Wollman (1986) stated that single-subject methodology may be preferential when working with athletes who will not improve much from pretraining levels. "Small consistent changes may be seen in a single-subject design but not emerge significantly in a group design" (Wollman, 1986, p. 136). Smaller changes (on a consistent basis) for elite athletes are often considered significant by coaches and athletes. Bryan (1987) also supported this view and noted that utilizing single-subject design eliminates problems of group averages and any lack of statistical significance obscuring improvements in individual performance. All of these advantages make single-subject design the most appropriate research methodology for applied research. Our third goal was to utilize single-subject design to study the effects of the mental training package and to further extend the use of these designs within the sport psychology literature. In summary, we examined the effects of a mental training package consisting of relaxation, imagery rehearsal, self-talk, and goal-setting on an endurance performance. In doing so, we provided further research on distance running and extended the application of single-subject designs in applied sport psychology. Participants Method Thomas D. Patrick, a triathlete, approached local triathlon and running clubs and offered mental skills training to a group of interested athletes. In exchange, runners agreed to participate in a scientific assessment of the intervention. An important part of this study was obtaining participants' commitment to undertake the training and practice required to assess the intervention. Participants signed a letter of informed consent prior to training. Participants were one male elite runner and three male triathletes, age The runner specialized in the 1,500-m distance and belonged to a local running

4 286 Patrick and Hycaiko club. The triathletes were all members of a local triathlon club and varied in running ability. A11 participants had limited exposure to mental skills training. Although they had some exposure to physical relaxation strategies (i.e., stretching to feel loose) and displayed some attempts at goal setting, none of the participants utilized mental skills training in a systematic manner within their precompetition training. Task Triathlon race distances can vary substantially, from 1 or 2 miles (referred to as sprints) up to and including the marathon distance (26 miles). The 1,600-m run is used by triathletes for training purposes because it allows them to complete two training runs at this distance each week with sufficient time for recovery. Running a longer distance would limit the triathlete to one training runlweek. Thus, we did not impose the distance utilized in this study. It is a component of endurance training. The 1,500-m runner agreed to run the additional 100 m at each training session. He felt the additional distance was minimal and would likely help rather than hinder his training. The task required completing four laps of a 400-m track as quickly as possible. Experimental Design A single-subject design, the multiple-baseline across individuals (Martin & Pear, 1996), was used to examine the effects of a mental skills package on runners' 1,600-m times. The advantages of this design for applied sport psychology research have previously been described in the literature (Bryan, 1987; Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996). Participants were observed in the baseline and intervention phases. The intervention, a mental skills package, was introduced when the dependent variable was stable (relatively consistent over time) or demonstrated a trend in the opposite direction of the change anticipated when introducing treatment to each individual (Kazdin, 1992). A sequential introduction of the intervention was continued until all participants (except the control, who was kept in baseline phase through almost the entire study) received the experimental treatment. The control participant was used to assess possible training effects. Dependent Variables Two observers concurrently measured the dependent variable (time to complete the 1,600-m run). To obtain scoring consistency, both observers kept track of lap counts and subsequent lap times using a checklist to ensure that the distance was completed on each trial. Before the start of the session, one observer was identified as the primary observer, whose data was utilized for assessment. The second observer's data was used to ensure that the dependent measure was reliable (i.e., interobserver reliability; Martin & Pear, 1996). A questionnaire (see Appendix A) was administered after each run to determine to what extent participants used the mental skills during each trial. Results were used as a manipulation check to ensure that participants were using the mental skills introduced during intervention. Questionnaire data also provided information about the degree to which participants were using each specific psychological skill within the treatment package.

5 Treahent: A Mental Skills Package Mental Training Package 287 The mental skills intervention package consisted of relaxation, imagery, self-talk, and goal setting. The four skills were presented in a self-teaching workbook, which involved reading material and self-assessment exercises divided into four specific sections. The workbook was developed by Patrick. Relaxation involved learning a three-step approach. The first step required the participant to practice progressive muscle relaxation training. The second focused on centering while stretching before competition. The third consisted of practicing techniques related to relaxing during competition. In addition to learning and practicing each skill, participants monitored their tension levels before and after the relaxation session by responding to four bipolar descriptors on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 =physically loose and 10 = tensed muscles. The two extremes assisted each participant's interpretation of tension level. Individuals were encouraged to be accurate in assessing perceived tension. The second mental skill, imagery, involved two steps. The first was initial imagery training. The second focused on learning competition-specific imagery. In the imagery training, participants were instructed to rate themselves for each session on two scales. On the first scale, participants indicated relaxation level, where 0 = extremely relaxed and 10 = extremely tense. The second scale was a rating of image vividness and clarity, from 0 = not at all to 10 = veiy real, felt like I wasparticipating. Participants were instructed that if "after session 3 your relaxation image(s) are not realistic, vivid, and under control, then continue with more training sessions until this has been achieved." The strength of competition-specific imagery training was assessed through four bipolar scale questions, which focused on the degree of difficulty participants experienced at controlling the imaging, image vividness or clarity, the strength of the participant's feelings or sensations during imaging, and the degree to which participants were able to "see" and "feel" running through the event. Participants were told that scores should be consistently high on these scales within the practice-training situation before imagery was used in actual competition. The third skill, self-talk, consisted of two steps. The first involved constructing and implementing appropriate positive self-talk. The second step consisted of controlling negative thoughts (self-statements) and using them in a positive way. In the latter technique, the negative thought was used as a cue for the participant to implement a reactive strategy. There were three components to this routine: relax, regroup, and refocus. Relaxation was obtained by performing a deep centering breath and attending to tense muscles. Once relaxed, the participant was directed to regroup by putting the situation in perspective. A self-statement was rehearsed to relieve the tension of the situation that prompted the negative self-statement. For example, if the participant stated, "Oh no, I'm falling away from the pack again," that statement could be counteracted by a more positive self-instruction, such as, "That's okay. Just stick to your race. You're doing fine." Finally, the participant would need to refocus on what to do next. Perhaps one needs to keep the lead pack within an acceptable distance. A self statement such as, "I can push harder and stay with them. Go for it. That's why I'm here" may be appropriate. Participants listed positive self-statements that would be helpful before and during competition or practices. Participants were directed to carefully consider all of the points discussed in the workbook and to implement as many as possible

6 288 Patrick and Hiycaiko into self-talk. Participants were also required to identify appropriate situations for using each self-instruction. When learning to control negative self-statements, participants considered past situations or anticipated future events and determined some potential or actual negative self-statements. In each situation, participants were asked to consider what caused the negative self-talk and how to react to it, using the three Rs above. The final mental skill was goal setting. Participants were expected to initially establish long-term performance outcome goals and then, based on these, develop daily performance outcome goals. A goal assessment form adapted from Orlick (1986) was used for evaluating all training and competition goals. The psychological preparation of using mental skills for peak performance was aptly summarized in the final section of the training manual as follows: Now that you've completed the mental skills training, you should be a more complete athlete. You now have control over your level of arousal, emotions and mood, thoughts and self-statements, and your overall ability to achieve your goals. Having completed the training journals and self-assessments, you have a better understanding of how the mental skills work. Keep in mind that mental skills are slulls like any others and that you will have to continue to practice them and develop your ability to use them proficiently. The next step is to formulate a structured plan in order to facilitate proper focus and feelings both before and during competition. Developing precompetition and competition focus/refocus plans are an ideal way to integrate mental skills into a structured preparation strategy. Considering the amount of training involved in attaining your personal goals, don't leave it to chance that you will be focused and have the appropriate feelings the day of the competition. Mental preparation is the key! Intervention Procedures The intervention was administered to each participant individually over 3 days. Each session was conducted offsite between time trials. The initial two sessions lasted approximately 90 rnin. The experimenter worked through each workbook exercise with the participant to assist in the learning process. Participants also watched a video, What You See Is What You Get, which introduced the skill of visualization (Botterill, 1987). A third session was utilized to answer athletes' questions before completing the intervention component. After the intervention was presented, participants were each contacted daily to ensure that they were completing the workbook assignments. The experimenter was available for participants' questions about completing homework assignments. Procedural Reliability Assessment To ensure that participants received the same information, individuals were each given a standardized workbook and homework assignments to better familiarize themselves with the related skills. Further, the workbook contained exercises and report sheets to standardize the mental practice and ensure that it occurred as intended (Wollman, 1986). Every session was delivered to each participant utilizing a standardized behavioral checklist (see Appendix B), which the experimenter and observer completed as each component was discussed with the participant. This procedure ensured that treatment was consistently applied.

7 Treatment of the Data Mental Training Package 289 Raw scores were plotted according to the participant's time (in seconds) to complete the 1,600-m run on each session. Subsequently, scores from the mental skills questionnaire were plotted throughout the sessions to assess the effects of intervention on the participant's usage and understanding of the mental skills. Scientifi Assessment of Treatment EfSects. Scientific assessment of data consisted of three phases. The first involved evaluating interrater reliability and procedural reliability to ensure that these measures met acceptable standards. The second phase involved graphing and then visually inspecting the data to determine whether a substantial effect occurred. According to Martin and Pear (1996), when inspecting data to judge whether treatment had an effect on the dependent variable, one has greater confidence that an effect has been observed the greater the number of times an effect is replicated within and across participants, the fewer the number of overlapping data points between the baseline and treatment phases, the sooner the effect is observed following the introduction of treatment, and the larger the effect, compared to baseline. An effect is also indicated when the baseline is stable or in a direction opposite to that predicted for treatment effects (Martin & Pear, 1996). In the third phase, one is more confident that an experimental effect has occurred if results are consistent with existing data and accepted theory. Clinical (Practica1)Assessment of Treatment EfSects. Wolf (1978) stated that a social validity assessment involves asking three questions: 1. To what extent are the identified target behaviors the most important to the client (participant), society, or significant others, such as coaches, parents, or peers? 2. Are the particular procedures deemed acceptable by the participant (client)? 3. Are the consumers of the treatment program satisfied with results? Upon completing the study, each participant responded to a social validation questionnaire to provide information about perceived relative importance of the study and to ascertain effectiveness of the intervention. Further, several coaches were selected to complete a questionnaire that solicited their professional opinions about the experiment and results. To ascertain a specific established level of expertise, only those coaches who participated with provincial or national level athletes were surveyed. Reliability Evaluations Results Correlations for the two recorders' times for each individual participant ranged from.9993 to Except for Participant 3 in Session 3 and Participant 2 in Session 11, all times were obtained from the primary observer's recorded times. In Sessions 3 and 11, the secondary observer's time was used because the primary observer did not promptly start (Session 3) or stop (Session 11) the watch. Procedural Reliability Evaluations All participants completed the exercises within the mental skills workbook. Subsequently, every session within the intervention phase included an imagery

8 290 Patrick and Hrycaiko assessment questionnaire and a training evaluation form. The observer verified that all aspects of the behavioral checklist were consistently delivered to each participant. Intervention Eflects The intervention effect on each participant's time to complete the 1,600-m run is shown graphically in Figure 1. The level of mental skills usage is shown graphically in Figure 2. For the three participants, the average time to complete the run decreased during the intervention phase, with Participant 1 displaying the largest difference in time between phases. Participant 1 Participant z I- Participant 3 Participant 4 Session Figure 1 -Time taken for each participant to complete the 1,600-m run during baseline and intervention phases.

9 Mental Training Package 291 Participant 1 Participant 2 Participant 3 Participant 4 Session Figure 2 - Percentage of mental skills used before and during the 1,600-m run for baseline and intervention phases. Participant I displayed an immediate effect, with no overlapping data points between the baseline and treatment phases. The performance level in the intervention phase was significantly different compared to baseline. On average, Participant I demonstrated a s decrease in time to run the 1,600 m throughout the intervention phase compared to baseline. Further, Participant 1's usage of mental skills went from a 25-38% rate during baseline to 100% throughout the entire intervention phase. Upon receiving intervention, Participant 2 experienced an immediate effect. However, the first 1,600-m time postintervention overlapped with previous times during the baseline condition. In contrast, the time in the next session was

10 292 Patrick and Hycaiko Participant 2's lowest up to that point. This new performance level was maintained throughout the remainder of the intervention phase. On average, Participant 2 demonstrated a s decrease in time to run the 1,600-m distance throughout the intervention phase compared to baseline. Further, Participant 2's usage of mental skills went from a 55.25% average during the baseline phase to 92.5% throughout the intervention phase. Of particular interest, the last 3 sessions consisted of a 100% usage of mental skills, which corresponded to Participant 2's three best 1,600-m run times. Participant 3 also displayed an immediate effect after intervention was introduced, with no overlapping data points. On average, Participant 3 demonstrated an 8.25s decrease in time to run the 1,600-m distance throughout the intervention phase compared to baseline. Participant 3's usage of mental skills went from a 28.86% average during the baseline phase to 100% throughout the entire intervention phase. Although Participant 4 was designated a control participant, we decided from an ethical perspective to deliver the intervention prior to the final two sessions because no strong evidence of a training effect was apparent. With only two data points available in the intervention phase for Participant 4, assessment was not planned nor warranted because there were not enough data points to evaluate a trend (Hersen & Barlow, 1976). Social Validation Upon completing the study, each participant was asked to complete a social validation questionnaire. Participants 2 and 4 reported that decreasing their 1,600-m times in practice was important, whereas Participant 1 stated that it was somewhat important, noting that it was not a distance the participant would ever run in competition. In contrast, Participant 3 did not feel that decreasing the 1,600-m time in practice was as important as decreasing it in competition. All four participants felt it was either somewhat important or important to increase the consistency of their 1,600-m times in practice. When asked about the usefulness of the mental skills package, three participants rated it as useful, with Participant 1 rating it very useful. Further, three participants reported that the mental skills package was very enjoyable. Participant 2 rated the mental skills package as enjoyable. With regard to participants' levels of satisfaction with the results produced by utilizing the mental skills package, Participants 1 and 4 reported feeling very satisfied, while Participants 2 and 3 felt satisfied. All participants reported that they would continue to develop and use mental skills training in the future, both in training and competition. Based on the social validation questionnaire, the mental training package approach was received favorably by the athletes. They reported that they enjoyed the workbook approach to introducing mental skills training. They were also very satisfied with results, which reinforces the likelihood that athletes would continue with the mental training program. Social Validation by Coaches To extend the social validation of the study, four local coaches were interviewed and requested to complete a questionnaire. Three of the four coaches indicated

11 Mental Training Package 293 that it was important to decrease an athlete's 1,600-m time in training. The fourth coach indicated that it was very important. The coaches also indicated that it was important to increase the consistency of an athlete's 1,600-m performance in training. When asked whether they perceived the intervention results to be a substantial improvement in the runners' times, all four coaches reported that results were important for the three experimental participants. However, Participant 3's results were perceived to be most significant because he was the most elite athlete (national level) within the study and was already performing at a very high level prior to intervention. This result suggests that mental skills training can be effective with national-team caliber athletes as well as exceptional athletes who are not quite at the elite level. Discussion The present research demonstrated that the mental training package consisting of relaxation, imagery, self-talk, and goal setting was effective in improving the running performance of athletes' completing the 1,600-m distance. Overall, an evaluation of the experimental participants' performance throughout the study showed that all individuals clearly improved their run times and that performance changes were due to introduction of the mental skills training package. In turn, a positive relationship clearly existed between participants' levels of mental skills usage and running performance (i.e., as mental skill usage increased, running performance improved). In this study, we aimed to combine in one package all the skills necessary to obtain a total treatment success (Azrin, 1977). In this way, each athlete would be equipped with a toolbox of mental skills to be utilized in a systematic manner before training and competitions. The skills package was used to enhance the probability of an effect, which in turn encourages athletes to incorporate the mental training into their regular training routines. Subsequently, participants reported that using all of the skills in the package aided each single mental skill. For example, researchers (Suinn, 1977; Weinberg, Seaborne, & Jackson, 1981) demonstrated that imagery combined with relaxation is more effective than imagery alone. The interrelatedness of the skills provides a more powerful intervention because participants use the mental skills in combination, as previously reported (Hamilton & Fremouw, 1985; Kirschenbaum & Bale, 1984). The present study was not designed to determine how much of the intervention effect was due to any one skill in the package. However, results support research findings by Burhans et al. (1988), who utilized mental imagery training for improving a run performance, and by Bull (1989), who demonstrated the positive effects of a visualization, self-talk, and relaxation package on an ultradistance runner's performance. Finally, results support using a mental training package with distance runners. This study also further supports utilizing single-subject designs when assessing the effectiveness of an intervention within applied sport psychology (Bryan, 1987; Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996; Wollman, 1986). Although single-subject designs have been used to determine the effectiveness of an intervention on sport performance, researchers have yet to investigate the efficacy of using a mental training package in an endurance performance. Most of the successful studies

12 294 Patrick and Hycaiko (Kendall et al., 1990; McKenzie & Liskevych, 1983; Wolko, et al., 1993) involved open and closed physical behaviors. An important part of single-subject designs is demonstrating the efficacy of an intervention across participants (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996). In the present study, we replicated the effect across three athletes. Another characteristic of single-subject designs is that the main dependent variable is repeatedly measured throughout the duration of the study (Hrycaiko & Martin, 1996). This approach permitted ongoing assessment of important aspects of the participants' run performances across many sessions. The assessment included examining the quantity and quality of the imagery as well as participants' cognitions and affects throughout the experiment. Wollman (1986) indicated that this may be important to help determine whether certain types of thoughts, attitudes, and feelings facilitate achieving a successful performance. Similarly, qualitative information cannot be ignored as possible explanations for less successful performances. For example, Participant 1 experienced a slight decline in performance during Session 9 but reported abdominal discomfort during the run. Participant 2 reported some difficulty obtaining images before the run on the first two sessions after the intervention was introduced. Not surprisingly, therefore, lower mental skills usage scores for Participant 2's first two intervention sessions were reported. In contrast, in Sessions 8-10, the participant's run times are at his best, while mental skills usage scores are highest. Perhaps this observation suggests a relationship between improved performance and mental skill usage. Although a postexperiment follow-up was not part of the present study, competitive experiences were reported by two participants (1 and 4) after the study. Both experienced a personal best in their next triathlons, and participants felt that the mental skills training was responsible for favorable results. Participants also reported that swimming and cycling performance had improved, both in training and competition. Future research should include follow-up assessment to determine whether athletes continue to use the skills and examine subsequent performances. Further research is also needed to investigate the effects of a mental training package on an athlete's endurance performance in competitive situations. Coaches and athletes believe that improvements during practice are important but that the true benefits of utilizing mental skills training in competition need to be examined. Intervention effects in the present study were observed for 3 weeks for Participant 1. An extended assessment period (intervention phase) should be carried out to determine whether improved performance can continue and to provide extended intervention phases for the remaining participants. Utilizing a mental training package that employs combined mental skills should be further emphasized. Although researchers need to investigate the efficacy of using a single mental skill to improve performance (i.e., imagery or relaxation), the package approach lends to obtaining more practical benefits for participants (athletes) within a field study as a result of the increased likelihood of a treatment effect. Future research should aim to collect additional qualitative information to aid in assessing observations. Qualitative information about the efficacy of utilizing each specific mental skill and the interrelatedness among them should be also be obtained. Results of this study indicate that a mental training package consisting of relaxation, imagery, self-talk, and goal setting enhanced participants' endurance performance. This study effectively extended the literature on both the efficacy of using mental training to enhance the endurance performance of distance running and for utilizing single-subject research design to assess the effect of an intervention

13 Mental Training Package 295 on athletes' performances. Finally, the intervention and results received a favorable social validation assessment, both from participants and coaches. References Aeschleman, S.R. (1991). Single-subject designs: Some misconceptions. Rehabilitation Psychology, 36, Azrin, N.H. (1977). A strategy for applied research: Learning based but outcome oriented. American Psychologist, 32, Botterill, C. (Speaker). (1987). What you see is what you get (Videotape). Ottawa, ON: Coaching Association of Canada. Bryan, A.J. (1987). Single-subject designs for evaluation of sport psychology interventions. The Sport Psychologist, 1, Bull, S.J. (1989). The role of the sport psychology consultant: Acase study of ultra distance running. The Sport Psychologist, 3(3), Burhans, R., Richman, C., & Bergey, D.B. (1988). Mental imagery training: Effects on running speed performance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 19(1), Greenspan, M.J., & Feltz, D.F. (1989). Psychological interventions with athletes in competitive situations: A review. The Sport Psychologist, 3(3), Hamilton, S.A., & Fremouw, W.J. (1985). Cognitive-behavioral training for college basketball free throw performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, Hersen, M., & Barlow, D. (1976). Single-case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change. New York: Pergamon Press. Hrycaiko, D.W., & Martin, G.L. (1996). Applied research studies with single-subject designs: Why so few? Journal ofapplied Sport Psychology, 8(2), Kazdin, A.E. (1992). Research design in clinical psychology. New York: Macmillan. Kendall, G., Hrycaiko, D., Martin, G.L., & Kendall, T. (1990). The effects of an imagery rehearsal, relaxation, and self-talk package on basketball game performance. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12, Kirschenbaum, D., & Bale, R. (1984). Cognitive-behavioral skills in sports: Application to golf and speculations about soccer. In W.F. Straub & J.M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp ). Lansing, NY Sport Science Associates. Martin, G.L., &Pear, J. (1996). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. McKenzie, T.L., & Liskevych, T.N. (1983). Using the multi-element baseline design to examine motivation in volleyball training. In G.L. Martin & D. Hrycaiko (Eds.), Behavior modification and coaching: Principles, procedures and research (pp ). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Morgan, W.P., & Pollock, M.L. (1977). Psychological characterization of the elite distance runner. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 301, National Coaching Certification Program of Canada. Coaching Theory Level I. Ottawa, ON: Coaching Association of Canada. Newsholme, E.A., Blomstrand, E., & Ekblom, B. (1992). British Medical Bulletin, 48(3), Orlick, T. (1986). Psyching for sport: Mental training for athletes. Champaign, IL: Leisure Press. Schomer, H.H. (1986). Mental strategies and perceptions of effort of marathon runners. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 17, Silva, J.M., & Appelbaum, M.I. (1989). Association-dissociation patterns of United States Olympic marathon trial contestants. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13(2),

14 296 Patrick and Hrycaiko Suinn, R.M. (1977). Behavioral methods at the winter Olympic games. Behavior Therapy, 8, Tammen, V.V. (1996). Elite middle and long distance runners associative-dissociative coping. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 8(1), 1-8. Ungerleider, S., Golding, J.M., Porter, K., & Foster, J. (1989). An exploratory examination of cognitive strategies used by masters track and field athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 3, Wanlin, C.M., Hrycaiko, D.W., Martin, G.L., & Mahon, M. (1997). The effects of a goalsetting package on the performance of speed skaters. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, Weinberg, R.S., & Gould, D. (1995). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Weinberg, R.S., Seabome, T., & Jackson, A. (1981). Effects of visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, relaxation, and imagery on karate performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 3, Weinberg, R.S., Smith, J., Jackson, A., & Gould, D. (1984). Effect of association-dissociation and positive self-talk saategies on endurance performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 7, Weinberg, R.S., & Williams, J.M. (1993). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In J.M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology (2nd ed., pp ). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Williams, J.M. (1993). Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (2nd ed.). Mountain View, CA: Maryfield. Wolf, M.M. (1978). Social validity: The case for participative measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, Wolko, K.L., Hrycaiko, D.W., & Martin, G.L. (1993). A comparison of two self-management packages to standard coaching for improving practice performance of gymnasts. Behavior Modification, 17(2), Wollman, N. (1986). Research on imagery and motor performance: Three methodological suggestions. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, Manuscript submitted: July 10, 1997 Revision received: December 18, 1998

15 Mental Training Package 297 Appendix A: The Mental Skills Assessment Questionnaire Name: Date: Yes No 1. Did you perform a relaxation technique before your run (e.g., centering when stretching to be mentally calm and/or physically relaxed)? Did you use a relaxation strategy during your run (e.g., used self-statements and/or centering to maintain a relaxed and loose mental and/or physical state)? Did you mentally rehearse before you went for your run? Did you use imagery in any way during your run? 5. Did you perform any self-statements during your warm-up? Did you use positive self-talk or coping self-statements during the run? Did you set any goals (personal or performance) before your run? Did you have a particular mental skill(s) goal for today's run? - - Percent of total skills used: (Yes) totav8 X 100 = % How much energy did you expend on today's run? (Please circle the appropriate number) No effort at all Went all out

16 298 Patatvick and Hrycaiko Appendix B: The Intervention Checklist Signature of Observer: Date: - Session 1 Relaxation Training Ask subject to read p. 1 Perform progressive muscle relaxation session (using cassette) Complete Session 1 of progressive muscle relaxation journal Have subject read Step 1.2 Take subject through an example of centering while stretching Have subject read Step 1.3 Provide an example using self-talk and imagery as well Remind subject to fill in journal on p. 3 Imagery Training Have athlete read Step 2.1 Go through an imagery session with subject Complete Session 1 of initial imagery journal Explain that subject must practice once a day for 3 days consecutively Have subject read Step 2.2 Stress "feel" and "creativity" Go through an example session Complete competition-specific imagery training questionnaire Session 2 Check to see that Skill 1 and Skill 2 exercises were completed Self-Talk Have subject read p. 8 Discuss self-talk in relation to relaxation, imagery, precompetition plan Work through two examples of the self-talk exercise sheet (P 10) Have subject read p. 9 Explain refocusing (before and during competition) Go through two examples of Step 3.2 training plan

17 Mental Training Package 299 Goal-Setting Have subject read pp Go through goal assessment form, explain each question, and refer to the appropriate information within the workbook Complete goal-setting sheet for the next session with the subject Get subject to read p. 16 of manual Reinforce the precompetition/competition plan idea General Comments: Will contact subject daily to check on progress/compliance of exercises Will be using these skills at the next session Session 3 (day before first data collection session) Check to see that Skill 3 and Skill 4 exercises were completed Ask if there are any questions Copy questions down and answer them Check understanding with subjects for any of the previous questions that were asked by previous subjects