Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach

Transcription

1 Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach Volume 1 Series Editors Alphia Possamai-Inesedy, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia Christopher G. Ellison, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA Editorial Board Amy Ai, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA Maureen Benjamins, Sinai Urban Health Institute, Chicago, USA Alex Bierman, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada Matt Bradshaw, Baylor University, Waco, USA Alexander Broom, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia George Fitchett, Rush University, Chicago, USA Paul Heelas, Lancaster University, Bailrigg, UK Terrence Hill, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA Ellen Idler, Emory University, Druid Hills, USA Harold Koenig, Duke University, Durham, USA Neal Krause, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA Jeff Levin, Baylor University, Waco, USA Pranee Liamputtong, Latrobe University, Melbourne, Australia Keith Meador, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA Doug Oman, University of California-Berkeley, Oakland, USA Kenneth Pargament, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, USA Crystal Park, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA Jenny Trinitapoli, Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA

2 The relationship between religious/spiritual belief or behaviour and health behaviour has been explored over several decades and across various disciplines. Religious variables have consistently been found to have a direct relationship to physical and mental health. At the same time - research has also indicated potential societal tensions that can exist between religion and health we have seen this in relation to family planning, HIV/AIDS, and reproduction. This book series aims to uncover the impact of religion on individual health behaviours and outcomes but also the influence of religion on health practices at the community level. This book series uncovers the impact of religion on individual health behaviors and outcomes, as well as the influence of religion on health practices at the community level. It consists of volumes that are based on multi-methodological approaches, provide quantitative and qualitative forms of analysis, and advance the understanding of the intersection between religion and health beyond the correlation of religious belief and health outcomes. Building on earlier research, the series explores the direct relationship between religious variables and physical and mental health, as well as the potential societal tensions that have been shown to exist between religion and health for example in relation to family planning, HIV/AIDS, and reproduction. Spoken values are often shared within religious communities; however, religious influence can at times be extended outside of the community in instances of service provisions such as hospital ownership, various research active think tanks, political action, and the development of community mores. More information about this series at

3 Kevin J. Flannelly Religious Beliefs, Evolutionary Psychiatry, and Mental Health in America Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems Theory

4 Kevin J. Flannelly Center for Psychosocial Research Massapequa, NY, USA Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Library of Congress Control Number: Springer International Publishing AG 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

5 Acknowledgments I am deeply indebted to the late Dr. Eugene B. Brody, the longtime Editor-in-Chief of The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, for affording me and my colleagues a forum to publish our original theoretical paper on Beliefs, Mental Health, and Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems in the Brain and an earlier study about belief in life after death and mental health that led directly to the development of ETAS theory. I am also indebted to Professor Paul Gilbert of the University of Derby, whose insights and guidance enabled us to publish the original theoretical article and two subsequent articles about ETAS theory. I thank my friend and colleague Chris Ellison (Dr. Christopher G. Ellison) for spurring my interest in studying the connection between religious beliefs and mental health, encouraging me to write this book, and providing me the opportunity to publish the book in the Springer Series Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach, on which he is an editor. I thank my wife Laura (Dr. Laura T. Flannelly), who is also my colleague and friend, for her support while writing the book and for editing all the book chapters. The studies in this book by my colleagues and me that were published between 2005 and 2010 were partly supported by a grant from the John Templeton Foundation to HealthCare Chaplaincy in New York City for a 3-year postdoctoral research fellowship on religion and health and subsequent Templeton funding of that program. The studies by my colleagues and me that were published between 2011 and 2015 were funded, in part, by Templeton Grant # 21296, Spiritual Beliefs as Predictors of Mental Health: A Test of ETAS Theory (Kevin J. Flannelly, Ph.D., and Kathleen Galek, Ph.D., coprincipal investigators). I am grateful to Dr. Jackson Kytle for his advocacy of theory development and basic research at HealthCare Chaplaincy during his tenure there as the Vice President of Academic Affairs. v

6 Contents 1 Introduction Religious Belonging, Behaving, and Believing Personal Perspective and the Book s Organization Religious Beliefs Examined in This Book Brief Summary of ETAS Theory Levels of Analysis of ETAS Theory... 6 References... 8 Part I The Origin of Evolutionary Ideas in Historical and Religious Context 2 Greek Philosophy, Early Christian Theology, Purpose, and Change Greek Philosophers Aristotle Christian Theology and Creation Christian Theology and Evolution Chapter Highlights and Comments References The Reformation and The Enlightenment The Reformation Carl von Linnẻ (Carolus Linnaeus) The Enlightenment Georges-Louis Leclerc Buffon Erasmus Darwin Chapter Highlights and Comments References vii

7 viii Contents 4 19th Century Evolutionary Thought Before Charles Darwin Geology and the Fossil Record William Paley s Natural Theology Jean Baptiste de Monet Lamarck Between Lamarck and Darwin Chapter Highlights and Comments References Part II Charles Darwin s Theories of Evolution and Reactions to Them 5 Charles Darwin s Origin of Species Development of Darwin s Ideas Darwin s Delay in Publishing Darwin s Origin of Species Chapter Highlights and Comments References Reactions to Darwin s Origin of Species Initial Reactions to the Origin of Species Creation Science and Intelligent Design The Modern Synthesis Chapter Highlights and Comments References Darwin s Descent of Man and The Expression of Emotions Darwin s Descent of Man Darwin s Expression of Emotions Expressions of Fear and Anger Expression of Other Emotions Common Descent of Emotions Chapter Highlights and Comments References Reactions to The Expression of Emotions American Psychology European Ethology Chapter Highlights and Comments References Part III Evolutionary Psychiatry 9 Brain Evolution and Emotions The Triune Brain and Behavior The Triune Brain and Emotions The Neocortex Chapter Highlights and Comments References... 75

8 Contents ix 10 Fear in the Animal and Human Brain Fear in the Animal Brain Brain Stem Basal Ganglia Limbic System Prefrontal Cortex Fear in the Human Brain Brain Stem Basal Ganglia Limbic System Prefrontal Cortex Chapter Highlights and Comments References Anxiety Disorders as Evolutionary Adaptations Background Fear of Small Animals Acrophobia (Fear of Heights) Panic Attack and Agoraphobia Social Phobia (Social Anxiety) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder General Anxiety Chapter Highlights and Comments References Other Psychiatric Disorders as Evolutionary Adaptations Depression Somatization Paranoid Ideation Problems with Proximate Mechanisms Chapter Highlights and Comments References Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms The Nature of Beliefs Folk Beliefs Religious Beliefs as Folk Beliefs Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms Beliefs and the Brain Chapter Highlights and Comments References Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems Theory Background Brain Regions Involved in Different Psychiatric Disorders ETAS in the Brain The Operation of ETAS

9 x Contents The vmpfc in Deductive Reasoning and the Influence of Beliefs Threat, Safety, and the vmpfc The Role of the vmpfc in Threat Assessment The Role of Other PFC Regions in Threat Assessment Description of ETAS Functioning Chapter Highlights and Comments References Part IV Religious Beliefs and Mental Health 15 Belief in God and Life-After-Death Among American Adults Background Americans Belief in God Americans Beliefs About God Americans Belief in Life-After-Death Afterlife Beliefs of Several Major Religions Jewish Afterlife Beliefs Christian Afterlife Beliefs Islamic Afterlife Beliefs Hindu and Buddhist Beliefs Different Afterlife Beliefs Among Americans Chapter Highlights and Comments References Religion and Death Anxiety Denying Death Intrinsic and Extrinsic Religious Orientation and Death Anxiety Belief in Life-After-Death and Death Anxiety Other Religious Beliefs and Death Anxiety Religious Beliefs and Specific Fears About Death Chapter Highlights and Comments References Belief in Life-After-Death and Mental Health Background Belief in Life-After-Death and Psychological Well-Being Belief in an Afterlife and Psychiatric Symptoms Chapter Highlights and Comments References Beliefs About Life-After-Death and Psychiatric Symptoms Different Afterlife Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms Beliefs About the Afterlife, the World, and Psychiatric Symptoms

10 Contents xi 18.3 Terror Management Theory and Psychiatric Symptoms Chapter Highlights and Comments References Beliefs About the Nature of God and Mental Health Beliefs About the Nature of God and Psychological Well-Being Beliefs About the Nature of God and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in a Harsh God, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Happiness Chapter Highlights and Comments References Beliefs About One s Relationship with God and Mental Health Believing One Has a Relationship with God Early Research on Mental Health and Believing One Has a Relationship with God Three Beliefs About One s Relationships with God and Mental Health Collaboration with God and Mental Health Positive and Negative Religious Coping and Mental Health The RCOPE The RCOPE and Mental Health Chapter Highlights and Comments References Belief in God as an Attachment Figure and Mental Health Attachment Theory Attachment Theory Applied to Religion Beliefs About One s Attachment to God and Mental Health Attachment to God and Psychological Well-Being Attachment to God and Psychological Distress Attachment to God and Psychiatric Symptoms Mediating Effect of Anxiety on the Association Between Attachment to God and Happiness Chapter Highlights and Comments References Belief in Meaning in Life and Mental Health Background Religion and Meaning Meaning and Mental Health Religious Meaning and Mental Health Chapter Highlights and Comments References

11 xii Contents 23 Religious Doubt and Mental Health Religious Doubt Religious Doubt and Psychological Well-Being Religious Doubt and Psychiatric Symptoms Chapter Highlights and Comments References Belief in Divine Forgiveness, Evil, and Biblical Literalism and Mental Health Belief in Divine Forgiveness and Mental Health Belief in Evil and Mental Health Belief in Human Evil and Mental Health Belief in Human Evil and Divine Forgiveness and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in Satan and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in Biblical Literalism and Seeking Help for Mental-Health Problems Belief in Biblical Literalism and Psychiatric Symptoms Chapter Highlights and Comments References Part V Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations for Future Research 25 The Historical Development of Theories of Organic Evolution Historical Background from the Greeks to the Enlightenment Three Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Thoughts About Evolution Conclusions References Darwin s Books About Evolution and Reactions to Them Darwin s Basic Ideas Reaction to the Darwin s Origin of Species Darwin s Descent of Man and The Expression of Emotions Reactions to The Descent of Man and The Expression of Emotions Ultimate Causes and Proximate Mechanisms Conclusions References Evolutionary Psychiatry and ETAS Theory Brain Evolution and Emotions Fear in the Brain Psychiatric Disorders as Evolutionary Adaptations Fear of Small Animals

12 Contents xiii Acrophobia (Fear of Heights) Panic Attack and Agoraphobia Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) General Anxiety Social Phobia (Social Anxiety) Depression Somatization Paranoid Ideation Problems with Proximate Mechanisms The Nature of Beliefs Folk Beliefs Religious Beliefs as Folk Beliefs Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms Beliefs and the Brain Evolutionary Threat Assessment Systems Theory Brain Regions Involved in Different Psychiatric Disorders The vmpfc in Deductive Reasoning and the Influence of Beliefs Threat, Safety, and the vmpfc The Role of the PFC in Threat Assessment Description of ETAS Functioning References Belief in Life-After-Death and Mental Health Background Belief in Life-After-Death and Death Anxiety Belief in Life-After-Death and Psychological Well-Being Belief in an Afterlife and Psychiatric Symptoms Different Afterlife Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms Beliefs About the Afterlife, the World, and Psychiatric Symptoms Terror Management Theory and Psychiatric Symptoms Conclusions References Beliefs About God and Mental Health Background Beliefs About the Nature of God and Mental Health Beliefs About the Nature of God and Psychological Well-Being Beliefs About the Nature of God and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in a Harsh God, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Happiness

13 xiv Contents 29.3 Beliefs About One s Relationship with God and Mental Health Background Three Beliefs About One s Relationships with God and Mental Health Collaboration with God and Mental Health Positive and Negative Religious Coping and Mental Health Belief in God as an Attachment Figure and Mental Health Background Attachment to God and Psychological Well-Being Attachment to God, Psychological Distress, and Psychiatric Symptoms Mediating Effect of Anxiety on the Association Between Attachment to God and Happiness Conclusions References Belief in Meaning, Other Religious Beliefs, Religious Doubt, and Mental Health Belief in Meaning and Purpose in Life and Mental Health Background Belief in Meaning and Mental Health Religious Doubt and Mental Health Background Religious Doubt and Mental Health Belief in Divine Forgiveness and Human Evil and Mental Health Background Findings on Belief in Divine Forgiveness and Human Evil and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in Satan and Psychiatric Symptoms Belief in Biblical Literalism and Seeking Help for Mental-Health Problems Belief in Biblical Literalism and Psychiatric Symptoms Conclusions Religion, Meaning and Mental Health Religious Doubt and Mental Health Belief in Divine Forgiveness, Evil, and Mental Health Belief in Biblical Literalism and Mental Health References

14 Contents xv 31 Directions for Future Research on ETAS Theory and Mental Health Background Research on Level I of ETAS Theory: Survey Research on Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms General Comments Belief in a Protective God and Anxiety Social Support, Self-Esteem, and ETAS Theory ETAS Theory Versus Terror Management Theory Research on Level I of ETAS Theory: Surveys of the Lifetime Prevalence of Psychiatric Symptoms Research on Level II of ETAS Theory: Cognitive- Affective Neuroscience Studies Correlational Research on Psychiatric Symptoms Experimental Research on Religious Beliefs and Psychiatric Symptoms Research on Level III of ETAS Theory: Neural Organization and Functioning of ETAS Research on Level IV of ETAS Theory: Comparative Research on the Evolution of Fear and Defense References Index