Advanced GCE Psychology

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1 Advanced GCE Psychology Unit G542: The Core Studies High banded Candidate style answers Introduction OCR has produced these candidate style answers to support teachers in interpreting the assessment criteria for the new GCE specifications and to bridge the gap between new specification release and availability of exemplar candidate work. This content has been produced by senior OCR examiners, with the input of Chairs of Examiners, to illustrate how the sample assessment questions might be answered and provide some commentary on what factors contribute to an overall grading. The candidate style answers are not written in a way that is intended to replicate student work but to demonstrate what a good or excellent response might include, supported by and conclusions. As these responses have not been through full moderation and do not replicate student work, they have not been graded and are instead, banded medium or high to give an indication of the level of each response. Please note that this resource is provided for advice and guidance only and does not in any way constitute an indication of grade boundaries or endorsed answers. 1 The study by Bandura, Ross and Ross on the imitation of aggression used a number of experimental controls. Describe how two variables were controlled. (i) The variable of aggression was controlled by rating the children for aggression beforehand and then, on the basis of these ratings, they were arranged in triplets and assigned randomly to one of the three groups aggressive, non-aggressive, control. Here two of the controls used in Bandura s study have been clearly and adequately described. (ii) To make the test as fair as possible all the children were tested in the same rooms which were always laid out identically 2(a) Describe the sample used in the study of taxi drivers' brains by Maguire et al. The sample consisted of 16, righthanded, male taxi drivers, average age 44, all licensed for more than 18, months whose average time as a taxi driver was 14.3 years. The candidate has given several features of the sample used by Maguire, making it an excellent answer. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 1

2 2(b) Suggest one application of the findings from the study of taxi drivers' brains by Maguire et al. The demonstration that normal activities can induce changes in the relative volume of grey matter in the brain has obvious implications for the rehabilitation of those who have suffered brain injury through some type of accident to whom it may be possible to give specific activities to mend the damaged brain area. This is a full and clear explanation of an appropriate application of Maguire s findings. 3 Describe two features of the experiment by Milgram that may explain the high levels of obedience. Examiner commentary Two features of Milgram s experiment that may explain the high levels of obedience are: (i) The fact that it was conducted at the prestigious Yale University influenced participants as to the worthiness of the study and the competence of the experimenter. (ii) The participant had agreed to an implicit social contract by agreeing to participate and being paid for his participation. He therefore felt obliged to continue. The candidate has given full descriptions of two of the features Milgram suggested could explain the high levels of obedience found in his study. This is therefore a very good response. 4(a) From the study by Dement and Kleitman:Outline one way that sleep has been measured. One way sleep has been measured is through the use of an EEG machine which measures changes in brain waves during sleep, thus indicating which stage of sleep a participant is in at any one time. This is a full description of one way researchers have tried to measure the sleep experience. 4(b) Give one strength of this method of data collection. One strength of this method of data Here the candidate has not only identified a collection is that by using a machine strength of using an EEG machine to gather one is able to gather objective, data, they have also described how the accurate data about an individual s strength applies to Dement and Kleitman s natural sleeping behaviour which is study, so is a higher level answer. 2 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

3 not influenced in any way by the researcher. 5 In the study by Reicher and Haslam; Describe the ways in which the guards failed to identify with their role. The guards showed awareness from the start of the power they had and showed through their conversations that they felt uncomfortable about it. They also offered their left over food to the prisoners because they felt bad about the difference in quality and on many occasions they failed to exercise their given power because they did not want to be seen as authoritarian. This is a very comprehensive and accurate description of various ways in which the guards failed to identify with their role. 6(a) What is meant by the term inter-rater reliability? Inter-rater reliability is the Here the candidate has given a detailed and agreement between two or more accurate description of the term inter-rater observers watching the same events. reliability. After the observation their records are correlated statistically. If there is good inter-rater reliability there will be a strong positive correlation. 6(b) Give one example of inter-rater reliability from a core study. The two observers who scored the participants aggressive behaviour in Bandura s Bashing Bobo experiment were found to have a high level of reliability/consistency/agreement, and their findings, when correlated, showed a significant positive correlation. This is a full, clear description of how interrater reliability was demonstrated in an appropriate, named Core Study. 7(a) Give one assumption of the psychodynamic approach. One assumption of the psychodynamic approach is that all human behaviour and experience can be explained in The candidate has given a good, full description of one assumption of the psychodynamic approach. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 3

4 terms of subconscious, inner conflicts of the mind. 7(b) Give one criticism of the psychodynamic approach. One criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it was developed primarily through the use of the case study method which, although it gives rich detailed information, is often subjective and lacks scientific rigour. The candidate has identified and described well an appropriate criticism of the psychodynamic approach. 8 From the study by Savage-Rumbaugh et al; Name two pieces of evidence that pygmy chimpanzees have a greater aptitude for the acquisition of symbols than other apes. (i) One piece of evidence that pygmy chimpanzees have a greater aptitude for the acquisition of symbols than other apes was shown through Kanzi being able to form associations between lexigrams and objects whereas Sherman and Austin could not do this. Two appropriate pieces of evidence have been identified and fully described so the candidate has attained the higher level. (ii) Another piece of evidence was that Kanzi showed an ability to use words correctly from the very beginning whereas Sherman and Austin went through a period when new words were used incorrectly and then dropped out as correct associations were found. 4 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

5 9(a) From the study by Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, Mortimore and Robertson on autism, Briefly describe the eyes task. The Eye Task comprises 25 photographs of the eye region of faces. The participant is shown one photograph at a time, asked the question, Which word best describes what this person is feeling or thinking? and given a forced choice between two words e.g. friendly or hostile. This is a clear and accurate description of the Eye Task. 9(b) Describe how the validity of this task was checked. The validity of the Eye Task was This is a clear description of how the validity of checked by correlating the test the Eye Task was checked and shows good results with the results from Happe s understanding of the study. strange stories which is another equivalent test of Theory of Mind. 10 Briefly explain why Samuel and Bryant conducted their study on cognitive development. Samuel and Bryant conducted their study because Rose and Blank only looked at the ability of 6-year-old children to conserve number. Samuel and Bryant wanted to find out if the same results would occur with other conservation tasks and a wider age range of participants. Here the candidate has give a full, detailed and contextualised description of why Samuel and Bryant conducted their study. 11(a) The study by Griffiths on gambling used the thinking aloud method. Outline how the thinking aloud method was used in this study. Thinking aloud consists of verbalising every thought that passes through an individual s mind. In this study participants had their verbalisations recorded via a microphone attached to a tape recorder and thought aloud as they gambled. This response is an excellent, contextualised description of the thinking aloud method. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 5

6 11(b) Give one advantage of the thinking aloud method. One advantage of the thinking aloud method is that as participants are describing their thoughts whilst effecting a task (here, gambling), the researcher obtains good, detailed insight into the individual s thought processes which may help explain their behaviour. The candidate has not just identified an appropriate advantage of the thinking aloud method but has also given a full, contextualised description of the advantage. 12 Give one similarity and one difference between the study on aggression by Bandura, Ross and Ross and the study by Sperry. One similarity between the study on aggression by Bandura, Ross and Ross and the split-brain study by Sperry is that they were both conducted in highly controlled laboratory settings which allowed the researcher to measure cause and effect. This counts as a full description of an appropriate difference between the two named studies. This is a clear, full description of one appropriate similarity between the two named studies. One difference between the two studies is the sample size. Bandura s study involved 72 children 36 boys and 36 girls whereas Sperry s study only involved 11 adult participants. 13 Briefly describe the cost benefit theory suggested by Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin to explain how people behave when deciding whether to help a victim. The cost-benefit theory holds that individuals make a rational choice about how to behave based on balancing the perceived benefits with the perceived costs of effecting a particular behaviour in any specific situation. When deciding whether or not to help a victim, an individual weighs up the costs of helping e.g. lost time, risk of injury, against the possible benefits e.g. praise from others, thanks from the victim, and if the costs outweigh the benefits they Here the candidate has provided a fully detailed description of the cost-benefit analysis which has been explicitly linked to the named Core Study. 6 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

7 do not help and vice versa. 14 The study by Rosenhan raises questions about medical decision making. Suggest how type one and type two errors could apply in the study by Thigpen and Cleckley on multiple personality disorder. A Type One error is when a sick person is labelled healthy whereas a Type Two error is where a healthy person is labelled as sick. Thigpen and Cleckley may have made a Type Two error because Eve could actually have been healthy but they decided to label her as sick, suffering from Multiple Personality Disorder. Here the candidate has given a full description of both types of error and explained how they relate to Thigpen and Cleckley s study. 15(a) In experiment 2 of the Loftus and Palmer study on eyewitness testimony: What was the result for the hit and control group In the hit group, 7 participants reported seeing broken glass compared to 6 participants in the control group. This is enough to be considered a full description of the result in relation to the hit and control groups. 15(b) Give one reason why these participants saw broken glass. Section A Total [60] One reason participants said they had seen broken glass is that when they returned a week after first seeing the car crash video, the questionnaire they were asked to complete contained the question, Did you see broken glass? This was a leading question which led participants to believe they had seen broken glass. This is a clear, well-explained reason why participants reported seeing broken glass. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 7

8 Section B 16 Choose one core study below; Piliavin I, Rodin J and Piliavin J (1969) Good Samaritanism; an underground phenomenon? Bandura A, Ross D and Ross S (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. and answer the following questions: ANSWERED IN RELATION TO THE BANDURA STUDY 16(a) What was the aim of your chosen study? The aim was to see whether children The description of the aim is clear, accurate would imitate aggressive behaviour and shows good understanding. when given the opportunity, even if they saw those behaviours in a different environment and the original model was no longer present. 16(b) Describe the sample used in your chosen study and give one limitation of it. [6] The sample consisted of 72 children The candidate has provided a very full, (36 boys, 36 girls), from Stanford accurate description of the sample including University Nursery School, aged numbers, ages and target population. They between months (mean age 52 have also described an appropriate limitation months). which has been fully explained and explicitly A limitation of this sample is that supports the description of the sample given because all the children went to the previously. same nursery school in California, USA, they may not have been representative of the population as a whole and so one should be cautious about generalising the findings to the wider population who may behave differently. 16(c) Describe how observational data was gathered in your chosen study [6] Observational data was gathered in Here the candidate has provided a very this study by two observers who scored accurate and detailed description of how the the participant s behaviour at 5 data was collected in the chosen study. second intervals throughout the 20 Understanding is obvious and expression and minutes the child was in Room 3, use of psychological terminology is sound. giving a total of 240 observations. Observations were made through a oneway mirror in an adjoining observation room, the observers noting instances 8 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

9 of imitative physical aggression, imitative verbal aggression, imitative non-aggressive phrases, instances of indirect imitation in relation to mallet use and behaviour towards the Bobo doll, and instances of nonimitative physical aggression e.g. behaving aggressively to objects other than the Bobo doll. 16(d) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of observational studies. [6] One advantage of observational studies Appropriate descriptions of both an advantage is that, if the participant is unaware and disadvantage are full, accurate and they are being observed; they are elaborated through referencing to the chosen unlikely to behave in a socially study. Use of appropriate terminology desirable way and will not respond to throughout demonstrates good understanding. demand characteristics by behaving how they think the researcher wants them to behave. They therefore behave naturally, making the findings valid and generalisable as they are likely to reflect how people behave in reallife situations. In Bandura s study, because the children did not know they were being watched whilst in Room 3, the aggressive acts they displayed were natural. One disadvantage of observational studies is that as the observers cannot ask participants any questions they are unable to establish why a participant behaves they way they do. In the Bandura study the observers were unable to ask the children why they were aggressive to either the Bob doll and/or the other toys. They could only presume it was because they were imitating what they had seen previously. Their assumptions may have been incorrect. 16(e) Suggest two changes to your chosen study and outline any methodological implications these changes may have. One change that could be made to Bandura s study could be to conduct a field experiment rather than a laboratory experiment. As part of the school PSHE curriculum concerned with [8] Two appropriate changes have been suggested which have been explained and expanded more than adequately considering the time limitations imposed by the examination. There is sound discussion and OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 9

10 the topic of bullying, children could watch a play involving male and female models being both physically and verbally aggressive. Teachers on duty in the playground at break/lunchtimes could then covertly observe the children and note instances of imitative/non-imitative aggression, using similar behavioural categories as Bandura et al. This would increase the ecological validity of the study as the children would see the play in their own school, as part of a normal day s programme and their behaviour would then be observed in the natural environment of their own playground. The children would be unlikely to respond in either a socially desirable way or in a way to please the researcher (demand characteristics) because they would not know they were being observed and therefore their behaviour would be natural. This change would however raise similar ethical concerns to Bandura s original study e.g. deception, stress, the moral motive, debriefing but the issue of informed consent to be observed would not arise as the children would be watched in a public place. A difficulty may arise in the recording of behaviour because, on occasions, the view of observers may be interrupted leaving them unable to record precisely every action of aggression though inter-rater reliability could be maximised if more than one teacher acted as an observer. A further problem that may occur is that by using a field experiment to gather data the researcher has little control over extraneous variables: should it be pouring with rain on the day the children watch the play, they will be unable to go outside at break/lunchtimes and so the observation could not take place. analysis of the suggested changes and the effects of the changes on the procedure are well explained. There is good use of psychological terminology and evidence of good understanding. Another change that could be made to Bandura s study could be to conduct the study at the same time in a number of different nursery schools across America. This could then maintain the controls of using a sample with the same number of boy and girl participants, with the same age range, but would allow the researchers to 10 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

11 compare results and identify similarities and differences in children s behaviour across a wider geographical area. This change should make the sample more representative of the population as a whole so that findings can be generalised to American children between the ages of 3 and 5¾. It should not be difficult to find appropriate samples from nursery schools across the USA though it may prove difficult to ensure both test reliability and inter-rater reliability because one could not be certain that each experiment was conducted and monitored in exactly the same way in each environment. Ecological validity would still be very low as neither the environment nor the task would be realistic or reflect normal everyday life. It would also prove very expensive to set the study up as researchers would have to buy a tremendous amount of equipment to make sure each school could effect the experiment fairly, and observers would need training in an attempt to ensure consistency. It may also prove problematic trying to find nursery schools with suitable lay-outs and rooms in which to conduct the experiment. 16(f) Outline the results of your chosen study? [8] Section B Total [36] Bandura s experiment found: Description of Bandura s results is full and accurate. Detail is more than appropriate for Children who saw an aggressive the level and time allowed. Understanding is model reproduced more aggressive good and fine details e.g. specific behavioural acts resembling the acts of the categories, have been added. The use of model (physical aggression, psychological terminology is excellent and the verbal aggression and nonimitative verbal phrases) than showing a high level of literacy competency. answer is structured and well-organised, children in the non-aggressive or control groups. Children who saw the aggressive model usually showed more partial imitation of the role model or non-imitative physical aggression than those who saw the nonaggressive model or no model. Children who saw the subdued, OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 11

12 non-aggressive model showed low levels of aggression although they were not always significantly lower than the no model/control group. Children who saw the same sex model only imitated their behaviour in some categories e.g. boys imitated male role models more than girls for physical and imitative verbal aggression, nonimitative aggression and gun play; whereas girls imitated female models more than boys for verbal imitative aggression and non-imitative aggression. Overall, boys were generally far more aggressive than girls, even when they had not been exposed to an aggressive model, except when they saw an aggressive female model. Section C 17(a) Outline one assumption of the social approach in psychology. One assumption of the social approach Description of an appropriate assumption is in psychology is that other people and accurate and detailed. Expression and use of the surrounding environment are major psychological terminology is also good. influences on an individual s behaviour, thought processes and emotions. 17(b) Describe how the social approach could explain obedience The social approach, as demonstrated Here the description of how the social through Milgram s study, could explain approach could explain obedience is detailed obedience. Firstly, as Milgram himself and accurate. Understanding is good and is suggested the environment Yale demonstrated by elaboration through reference University influenced participants to examples from Milgram s study. Expression as to the worthiness of the study and and use of psychological terminology is good. the competence of the experimenter, resulting in high levels of obedience which may not be found in a less prestigious setting. Secondly, the presence of a legitimate authority figure, dressed in a white lab coat, carrying a clip-board, influenced the participants behaviour as they 12 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

13 believed him to be a trustworthy and knowledgeable individual who should be obeyed. 17(c) Describe one similarity and one difference between the Milgram study and any other social approach study. [6] A similarity can be found between the Milgram study into obedience and the Reicher and Haslam BBC prison study which also takes the social approach in that both studies used samples comprised of adult males. Milgram s study involved 40 adult males; aged 20-50, from various occupational and educational backgrounds, and Reicher and Haslam used 15 males who showed a diversity of age, social class and ethnic background. A difference between the two studies is that Milgram s was conducted in America whereas Reicher and Haslam s took place in England. Milgram carried out his experiment in Yale University which is in the New Haven area of Connecticut, USA, whereas Reicher and Haslam created their mock prison at Elstree Studios in London, England. Descriptions of both the similarity and difference are accurate and detailed. Understanding is evident e.g. the candidate knows where the Elstree Studios are, and therefore the answer reaches the higher level. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 13

14 17(d) Discuss the strengths and limitations of the social approach using examples from the Milgram study. [12] Section C Total [24] Paper Total [120] One strength of the social approach is that it helps understand how behaviour can be influenced by other people and the situation in which people find themselves. For example, Milgram suggested the high levels of obedience found in his experiment were due not only to the presence of a legitimate authority figure but also because the study was conducted in a renowned educational establishment. When he conducted the same study in a run-down office block using an experimenter who appeared to be just an ordinary person, obedience levels were significantly lower. This indicates that to get desirable behaviour one must ensure the people involved and the situation are appropriate. Another strength of the social approach is that it can provide explanations for a great many phenomena. The big moral question in the middle of the twentieth century was how the horrors of WW2 could have happened. Was the killing of so many Jews because Germans were particularly obedient to authority figures? Studies like Milgram s have shown that, under the right conditions, Americans (and subsequently other cultures) will obey authority figures even when the command requires destructive behaviour. His findings therefore not only help explain the obedience of the Germans to Hitler s inhumane commands but open up research opportunities to investigate how such atrocities may be prevented in the future. A weakness of the social approach is that it underestimates the influence of individual differences on behaviour. Although Milgram s study showed that 65% (26/40) of the participants were prepared to obey the authority figure and give electric shocks up to 450 volts, 35% (14/40) were not prepared to go to such extremes. Likewise, although Milgram There is a good range and balance of strengths and weakness (2 of each) which are appropriate to the question. Discussion is detailed with good understanding, clear expression and effective analysis. There is a good use of appropriate examples, the use of psychological terminology is sound and the answer is competently structured and organised. 14 OCR Advanced GCE Psychology

15 obtained extremely high levels of obedience from his male participants it is generally accepted that although females are more obedient, they are more caring and empathetic, so would they behave in the same way? Individual differences in personality as well as upbringing influence behaviour; so suggesting that behaviour is totally influenced by one s social environment is reductionist. A further weakness of the social approach is that it often fails to emphasise that human behaviour has not just a cultural but also an historical context. Milgram was able to demonstrate that most cultures throughout the world in the 1960 s were obedient to authority figures. However these results may only apply to that historical period. Many events in the early 21 st Century e.g. disobedience to police instructions are regularly cited in the national press; suggest that if Milgram were to conduct his research in today s social environment, results may be very different. The social approach therefore often only provides superficial snapshots of social processes (Hayes, 1995), ignoring their development over time and the broader social, political and historical context in which the research takes place. Overall banding: High This is a script that includes very high level answers. Responses are clear, with full and accurate descriptions/explanations. A good range of appropriate examples is provided throughout. Discussion, where required, is detailed, shows excellent understanding and has effective analysis. There is a good use of psychological terminology throughout, literacy is competent and all answers are well structured and organised. OCR Advanced GCE Psychology 15