Hereditary disease in medieval medicine

Transcription

1 Hereditary disease in medieval medicine Cf. Maaike van der Lugt, Les maladies héréditaires dans la pensée scolastique (XIIe-XVIe), in L hérédité entre Moyen Âge et Epoque moderne. Perspectives historiques, M. van der Lugt and C. de Miramon (ed.), Florence: SISMEL, 2008, p See also Henry of Brussels and Henry the German, Quodlibeta (c 300) Utrum rex Francie habeat curare homines de morbo illo qui dicitur morbus regius Dicendum quod non excludendo miraculum potest etiam alia quedam causa naturalis <inveniri> quare rex Francie curat de tali morbo. Circa quod est intelligendum quod secundum medicos sicut sunt quidam morbi accidentales qui indifferenter et accidentaliter possunt huic accidere vel illi, sic etiam sunt quidam morbi hereditarii qui, scilicet, insunt filiis et parentibus, sicut est lepra et quedam tales infirmitates. Sicut autem isti morbi sunt hereditarii, sic possunt esse aliqui qui hereditarie sunt succendentes [!] <et> possunt curare talem morbum; nam curabili potest corespondere curator. Et si dicatur inquirendo quod hoc magis convenit primo regi francie quam alteri, dicam quod hoc potest sibi inesse ex constellatione aliqua que dominabatur in nativitate ipsius; et ab aliqua constellatione sibi datum est quod hereditarie posset omnem talem morbum curare. Et quod illud habeat veritatem potest ostendi per Albertum, qui narrat de quodam quem vidit, natus in aliqua constellatione, ex virtute illius constellationis iens per vicum deserebat omnes domos; reieciens autem vel rediens ipsas serabat, quod poterat contingere quia (quod ms.) ex constellatione sic dominante in eius nativitate poterit alterare quodam modo aerem; ex alteratione autem aeris poterat alternatim (alterari ms.) serare. Sic ergo possumus dicere quod curare talem morbum specialiter infuit primo regi francie et non aliis propter talem constellationem dominantem (dominante ms.) in eius nativitate. Per hoc solvitur quod argueretur de aliis regi<bus>. It is asked whether the king of France is able to cure people of the disease called the royal disease. Without excluding a miracle, I reply that there is also another, natural, cause why the king of France cures this disease. In this respect it must be understood that, according to physicians, just as there are accidental diseases that inflict anyone without distinction and by accident, there are diseases that are hereditary and that afflict both children and their parents. Leprosy is one such disease, among others. And just as there are hereditary diseases, it is also possible that certain people receive, through hereditary succession, the power to heal such diseases. For the thing to be cured can correspond to the healer. If one wonders why the first king of France had (this healing power) rather than another, I ll say that the (first king) could have this power, because of a certain constellation that dominated at his birth, which gave him the hereditary power to heal this disease. Albert (the Great) proves the truth of this matter. He tells a story about someone he saw who had been born under a constellation that gave him the power to open all doors when passing through town, and close them again on the way back. And this was the case because this person had received the power to change the air through a constellation dominating at the time of his birth; and through these air changes he could alternately

2 2 close (and open). So therefore we can say that curing this disease is the prerogative of the first king of France and not of others because of the dominant constellation at his birth. And in this way similar questions about other kings can be answered as well. 2. Johannes Vath, Quodlibeta (c 300) (2a) Consequenter queritur utrum bonus generat bonum Dicendum quod aliquem bonum esse hoc est duplex, vel secundum complexionem vel secundum mores et scientiam. Et primo modo dico quod bonus debet generare bonum quia agens intendit generare sibi simile. Secundo tamen modo bonus non generat bonum quia bonitas secundum mores non est innata sed inest magis per assuefactionem in bonis operibus et per inquisitionem et aquisitionem. It is then asked whether a good person engenders a good child One must answer that a person can be good in two ways, either through his complexion or because of his behaviour and knowledge. In the first case a good person must engender a good child, because the active principle aims at generating something similar to itself. But in the second case, a good person does not necessarily engender a good child, because goodness on the basis of behaviour is not innate, but exists because of habitual good deeds and by striving for it and acquiring it. (2b) Consequenter queritur utrum filia meretricis debeat esse meretrix Dicendum quod si mulier est meretrix finaliter et ex intentione, propter ipsam luxuriam, et <agit> actum luxurie, quia hoc appetit et prelegit et est naturaliter luxuriosa, et filia sua debet esse meretrix, quia sicut bonus generat bonum ita in proposito. Si tamen est meretrix propter malam consuetudinem vel indigentiam revelandam (lege relevandam) non oportet quod filia sit meretrix; etiam conversatio cum matre facit filiam meretricem. It is then asked whether the daughter of a prostitute must be a prostitute as well One must answer that when a woman is a prostitute on purpose and intentionally, because she is full of lust, and if she commits lustful acts because she desires it and wants it, and because she is lustful by nature, her daughter must also be a prostitute, because just like a good person generates a good child, it is the same here. But if she is a prostitute because of bad habits and to ease her poverty, her daughter will not necessarily be a prostitute. However, daily contact with her mother will also make her become a prostitute. 3. Johannes Mesue (Johannes of Damascus, Yûhannâ ibn Mâsawagh, c ), Aphorisms (3a) Quemadmodum tam vitium anime quam figure corporis a parentibus cadunt hereditas, ita quoque morbus diuturnus et maxime si sit in principali membro. Just like the sins of the soul and the form of the body are inherited from the parents, this is the case also for chronic diseases, especially those located in the principal members. commentary of a certain Isidore to cadunt hereditas] et cadit iure hereditario and it is transmitted by the law of heredity.

3 3 (3b) Morbum diuturnum et defectionem membrorum hereditat quidem filius, sed differentem aut minorem, si alter parentum sanus fuerit. The child sometimes inherits chronic disease and weakness of the parts of the body, but in other ways or less so when the other parent is healthy. 4. Constantine the African (d. 098), Pantegni De lepra. [ ] Substantia enim spermatis comixta est cum humoribus malis de quibus lepra procreatur. Humoresque corporum filiorum, humoribus patruum similes sunt [...] unde necesse est a patribus ad filios malum protendatur. On leprosy. [ ] The substance of the sperm is mixed with bad humours that cause leprosy. The humours of the children s bodies are similar to the parents humours [ ]; hence the disease is necessarily transmitted from parents to children. 5. Avicenna (d. 037), Canon medicine (5a) (Classification of diseases) Et est preterea ex egritudinibus quedam que de uno ad alium transit sicut lepra et scabies et variola et febris pestilentialis et apreata putrida et precipue cum domus stricte fuerit, et similiter cum vicinus fuerit sub vento, et sicut opthalmia [ ]. Et sunt egritudinum quedam que in semine hereditantur sicut albaras alba et tinea naturalis et podagra et ptisis et lepra. Et sunt egritudinum quedam que sunt generales que sunt alicui genti proprie, aut in aliqua regione morantibus aut in eis multum abundant. Furthermore there are diseases that are transmitted from one person to the other, like leprosy and scabies and small pox and pestilential fever and putrid apreata (?), especially if the house is cramped; and also if the neighbourhood is exposed to the wind, as is the case for eye infections [ ]. And there are also diseases that are inherited in the seed, such as white albaras and worms and gout and consumption and leprosy. And there are general diseases that are typical of a certain people or of those who inhabit a certain region, or which are very frequent in these (populations) [no examples given]. (5b) (Joint pain and gout) Et dolores quidem iuncturarum sunt ex summa egritudinum que hereditantur plurimum, quoniam sperma est secundum complexionem generantis And some kinds of joint pain are part of the group of diseases that are often inherited because the sperm has the same complexion as the person who procreates. (5c) (Leprosy) Et quandoque accidit propter hereditatem et propter complexionem embrionis ex qua creatus est in se propter complexionem que est ei, aut acquisitam in matrice propter dispositionem que est ei, sicut si accidat ei ut sit conceptio in dispositione menstruorum. And sometimes (leprosy) occurs because of heredity and because of the complexion of the embryo that gave rise to the (leper), and so determines his complexion; or it is acquired in the womb because of the disposition of the latter, as is the case when conception takes place during menstruation.

4 4 6. Pierre of St-Flour, Concordancie (c 363) Morbus hereditarius. [ ] Notandum quod morbus hereditarius [ ] plurimum provenit a mala complexione frigida, propter quod omnes morbi hereditarii ut plurimum sunt frigidi et in membris frigidis, ut in juncturis sicut podagra, cujus duae sunt causae: una materialis sicut sperma infectum aut menstruum, ideo quae sunt concepta tempore mentruorum hereditantur a morbis sicut lepra et similibus; aliqua est causa efficiens, videlicet virtus formativa existens in spermate debili vel infecto, quae quidem virtus cum sit eadem cum virtute nutritiva, quia fuit debilis in nutriendo fuit debilis in formando; ideo claudus generat claudum et coecus coecum quandoque. Hereditary disease. [ ] Note that a hereditary disease [ ] often originates from a bad cold complexion; hence all or most hereditary diseases are cold and affect cold members, such as the joints in the case of gout. (Hereditary diseases) have two causes: the first is material, like infected sperm or infected menstrual blood; and this is why people conceived during menstruation inherit diseases such as leprosy and similar (diseases). The other cause is efficient, that is the formative power in weak or infected sperm, and since this (formative) power is of the same kind as the nutritive power, when it is weak in nutrition it is weak in formation; and this is why someone with a limp sometimes engenders a limping child, and a blind person a blind child. 7. Bernard of Gordon, Lilium medicine (c 305) [ ] Lepra enim aut introducitur ab utero, aut post. Si ab utero, hoc est quia generatus est in tempore menstruorum, aut quia est filius leprosi, aut quia leprosus concubuit cum muliere praegnante et ita baccalarius erit leprosus et ex his corruptionibus magis advenientibus conceptui generatur lepra. Si post uterum, hoc potest esse quia aer est malus, corruptus, pestilentialis, aut quia continuavit cibaria melancholica, sicut sunt lentes et alia legumina et carnes melancholicas, sicut sunt vulpes, ursi, apri, lepores et quadrupedalia, sicut sunt asini et similia. Et in quibusdam regionibus omnia talia feralia commeduntur ; et provenit etiam ex nimia confabulatione cum leprosis et ex coitu cum leprosa [ ]. Leprosy is contracted either in the womb or after birth. If it is contracted in the womb, this is because (the child) is conceived during menstruation, or because the child is the son of a leper, or because a leper has slept with a pregnant woman, and so the child becomes a leper; and from corruptions affecting the embryo to a greater extent leprosy is contracted. If (leprosy is contracted) after birth, this is for instance due to bad, corrupted, and pestilential air, or to the consumption of melancholic foodstuffs, such as lentils and other vegetables, or melancholic meats like that of foxes, bears, boars, hares, and quadrupeds like donkeys and similar animals. And in some regions all these wild animals are eaten. And (leprosy) is also caused by intense contact with lepers and from sexual intercourse with a female leper. 8. Jaques Despars (c ), Commentary on the Canon Alique sunt egritudines hereditarie que in semine hereditantur, id est trahunt originem ex spermatibus parentum vel sanguine menstruo ex quibus fimus. Et dicuntur hereditarie quia descendunt a parentibus in filios aut filias sicut hereditagia temporalium bonorum.

5 5 There are also hereditary diseases, which are inherited in the seed, that is, they have their origin in the seeds of the parents or the menstrual blood out of which we develop. And they are called hereditary because they come down from parents to sons and daughters just like the inheritance of worldly goods. 9. Dino del Garbo (d. 327), Disputed questions Questio proposita in scolis nostris fuit, utrum aliquis morbus qui esset in patri posset hereditari in filio. [ ] est intelligendum quod nomine hereditarii (other ms. hereditationis) intelligimus hic morbum qui ex principio generationis contrahitur, nam nullus morbum [hereditarium] causatum solum a rebus temporalibus morbum hereditarium vocat, sed vocat ipsum morbum accidentalem. Et ratio huius videtur esse ista, quoniam morbus hereditarius fixus videtur esse et permanens; nunc autem quod ex generatione contrahitur fixum et permanens esse videtur, cum naturam rei consequatur; quod autem causatur a rebus temporalibus, cum causetur ab extrinsecis, variabile et permutabile esse videtur, qua propter merito morbus hereditarius dicitur esse ille qui ex principiis generationis contrahitur. Sed ulterius advertendum quod non quicumque etiam morbus ex generatione contractus hereditarius dicitur, nam si tempore conceptus ex aere vel ex malitia regiminis vel ex alio occurente contingat aliqua mala dispositio in fetu, malam quidem dispositionem quando est multa scilicet morbum dicunt interesse ex generatione, sed non dicunt ipsum ex hereditate esse, quia talis egritudo non fuit in aliquo parentum. Oportet igitur addere ad rationem morbi hereditarii quod fuerit in alico parentum sive naturaliter sive accidentaliter et maxime si in ipso fuerit diuturnus et confirmatus. Et hoc est quod dicit Johannes Damascenus in suis Afforismis «quemadmodum tam vitiorum anime quam figure corporis a parentibus cadit hereditas, ita quoque morbus diuturnus, maxime si fuerat in principali membro» Et hoc apparet ex significatione vocabuli; illa enim sola bona que a parentibus eveniunt in filios vocantur hereditaria; secundum hanc igitur similitudinem extramsumptione hoc nomen est attributum morbis qui a parentibus in filios derivantur. [ ] Cum igitur sperma sit organum (other manuscript: instrumentum) virtutis generative que est in patre, que virtus generativa in se continet omnia membra patris et motus omnes qui sunt in omnibus membris patris, oportet quod in huiusmodi spermate sit virtualiter quidquid reperitur in omnibus membris patris [ ] Et quia in membris patris est masculinitas et est etiam complexio talis ut quia sit colerica vel flegmatica et sic de aliis; est etiam propius color ut quia sunt alba vel nigra; est etiam quantitas ut quia sunt magna vel parva; est etiam figura talis vel talis, sunt etiam mores et passiones ut quia est iracundus vel mitis vel audax vel timidus et alia etiam que attribuuntur complexioni in respectu ad animam, ut quia est ingeniosus vel hebes; sunt etiam passiones aliquando corporales diuturne ut quia est podagricus vel leprosus etc. Ideo oportebit semen decisum ab eo esse quodam modo virtualiter omnia ista. Et si sit omnino forte adsimilabit filius patri in omnibus istis ut sicut pater est masculus ita et filius est masculus et si pater magnus ita et fetus erit magnus et si albus albus et sic de ceteris. Sed si semen erit debile non valens omnino superare passum in istis, trahetur fetus in omnibus ad condictionem matris cum passum opponatur agenti, ut quia fetus erit femina et non erit similis patri nec in colore nec in figura nec in quantitate et sic de aliis, sed erit similis matris.

6 6 In my school the question arose whether some diseases that were in the father can be inherited in the child. [ ] And it must be understood that by the word hereditary we understand that disease which is contracted from the principles of generation, since no disease that is caused only by temporary factors is called hereditary, but that disease is called accidental. And the reason of this seems to be that hereditary diseases seem to be fixed and permanent; that which is contracted by generation seems to be fixed and permanent, because it follows the nature of the thing. By contrast, things caused by temporary factors seem to be variable and changeable, since their causes are external. Hence diseases that are contracted from the principles of generation are rightly called hereditary. However, it must be noted furthermore that not every disease that is contracted from generation is called hereditary. If at the time of conception some bad disposition develops in the fetus, either because of the air, or because of bad regimen, or because of some other cause, they say that this bad disposition or disease, if it is serious is contracted from generation. However, they do not say that it is caused by heredity, because neither of the parents has this disease. So to the definition of hereditary disease we must add that it must be in one of the parents, either naturally or by accident, and especially if it is chronic and permanent. And this is what John Damascene says in his Aphorisms Just like the sins of the soul and the form of the body are inherited from the parents, this is the case also for chronic diseases, especially those located in the principal members. And this is clear from the meaning of the word, since only goods that pass from parents to children are called hereditary; and according to this similarity the word can be applied metaphorically to diseases that children derive from their parents. Since sperm is the instrument of the father s power of generation, and since this generative power contains all the body parts of the father and all the movements that are in all the body parts of the father, the sperm must contain in virtual form everything that can be found in all the body parts of the father. [ ] And masculinity is in the body of the father, as well as complexion (so that he is choleric or phlegmatic, or otherwise), and also colour (so that he is black or white), and quantity (so that he is big or small), and shape, in this or that manner, and also character traits and passions (so that he is irascible or mellow, or courageous or timid), as well as other traits of the soul that depend on complexion, such as cleverness and dullness; and also sometimes chronic diseases like gout or leprosy. Consequently, the seed that (the father) produces must be all these things in virtual form. And if it is strong on all accounts, the child will resemble the father in every way, so that the child will be male just like the father; and if the father is big, the fetus will be big as well, and if he is white, he will be white, etc. But if the seed is weak and unable to dominate the passive principle in these respects, the fetus will take in all things after the condition of the mother, because the passive principle opposes the active principle, so that the fetus will be female and will not be similar to the father in colour, shape, and quantity, and in the other respects, but it will take after the mother instead. 0. Pietro d Abano, Expositio Problematum (30) (0a) (Pseudo)Aristoteles, Problemata: Propter quid in aliis animalibus genita magis secundum naturas assimilantur quam hominibus? Aut quia homo quidem multifariam disponitur secundum animam in coitu, sicut utique pater et mater dispositi fuerint ita disponentur genita? Alia vero animalia plurima quidem ad hoc idem sunt amplius. Aut non perficitur ut frequenter propter hanc concupiscentiam.

7 7 Why in the other animals do the offspring resemble the natures (of their parents) more than in humans? Is it because the human, during intercourse, arranges the soul in many ways, and however the father and the mother arranged (their souls), in that way the offspring are varied, but with the other animals most are focused on the act itself? And further, they do not become pregnant in most cases owing to desire. (translation Robert Mayhew, Loeb classical library). (0b) Pietro d Abano: Quare est quod in aliis animalibus secundum naturam genita cum gignentibus intensiorem habent similitudinem, ut bos generans cum bove genito et capra cum capra etc. quam in hominibus, non enim in ipsis sic patri aut matri filius assimilatur. [ ] Deinde solvit et assignat duas causas, quarum prima est quoniam vir et mulier multis modis et variis afficiuntur secundum animam in actu et fervore coitus varia imaginantes ad quam quidem varietatem variatur sperma et menstruum diversas recipiens impressiones et per consequens embrio qui inde conficitur, eo quod sicut pater et mater fuerint dispositi in coitu ita filii generati ab ipsis disponuntur. Et propter hoc cavendum est ne aliquis coeat ad generationem prolis tempore ire et tristitie et universaliter tempore passionum animalium et corporalium neque subito et cum furia; propter enim huiusmodi ex sapientibus generantur fatui, sicut in suis problematibus Alexander Affrodisius scripsit et ideo ex adulterio producti timoroso vel fornicatione deteriores sunt valde. Non sic autem est in aliis animalibus, immo plurima ipsorum permanent disposita secundum passiones anime ut prius erant, et maxime quorum morosior est coitus sicut porcorum et minorem recipientium delectationem in coitu. [ ] Multa enim sunt a quibus similitudo individualis dependet, que magis in homine quam in aliis variationi subduntur, quorum unum est virtus informativa parentis proiecta cum spermata affectans similitudinem omnimodam inducere, propter quod calvi calvos, varii varios et strabones strabones generant sicut dicitur in libro de aere et aqua. Aliud quidem de quo dependet similitudo est imaginatio vehemens et maxime mulieris tempore casus spermatis in matricem, talis enim divertit naturam spermatis ad illud quod fuit imaginatum, sicut tactum est supra etiam de pecudibus. Dependet tertio ex formis celestibus, quas Indi et Caldei imaginati sunt et signaverunt in celo. Unde Ptolomeus nono verbo Centiloquii ait vultus huius seculi fore subiectos vultibus et figurationibus supercelestibus [ ]. Advenit etiam similitudo vel oppositum propter passibilitatem aut impassibilitatem materie mulieris, scilicet sanguinis menstrui reddentis se disposite aut indisposite virtui agentis. Etsi Galenus ut sibi impingit Avicenna in muliere virtutem asserat esse activam similitudinis causativam. Sic igitur quia similitudo a causa diversa dependet et maxime in homine consequens est eam multotiens variari, propter quid in hominibus genita minus quam in aliis gignentibus similantur. Deinde assignat aliam causam dicens ideo esse quod similitudo non intervenit individualis perfecta gignentis ad genitum in specie humana sicut in aliis, quia coitus debite non perficitur multotiens in homine, sicut requiritur ut similitudo indicatur; propter enim fervorem concupiscentie coitus et motum furiosum quem incurrit homo in coitu pre ceteris animalium, quid accidit ex maxima delectatione quam habet in coitu, non observat ea que requiruntur ad coitum generativum et assimilationis dativum, statim enim suo semine proiecto propter motum quem passus est inordinatum consequitur abhominatio et penitentia, unde non tolerat tanto tempore quod sperma debite recipiatur a matrice sicut plurima aliorum, coitus enim noster ex quo contingit generationem fieri perfecte et per consequens assimilationem, sicut patet per Avicennam 20 tertii debet fieri post mentruorum purgationem et mulier ad delectationem incitanda est taliter ut vir et mulier simul emittant. [ ] Quia igitur hec ars non servatur ab homine in coitu plurimus coitus sterilis redditur, aut si non sit sterilis non erit individualis similitudinis in genito expressius.

8 8 Potest etiam alia causa asignari, quia plura sunt in homine tam ex parte figurationis membrorum cum aliis accidentibus apparentibus, quam ex parte qualitatum anime in quibus attenditur similitudo quam in aliis, sed difficilius est plura in unum reducere et conservare quam pauca, igitur etc. Why is it that in other animals the offspring resemble the nature of their parents more, as in the cow and the calf and the goat and the kid, etc., than in humans? For in (humans) the child does not resemble the father or the mother as much. [ ] Then (Aristotle) solves (the problem) by identifying two causes, the first of which is that the male and the female are affected in their souls in many and various ways during the act and fervor of intercourse. And since they imagine various things, the sperm varies accordingly and the menstrual blood receives various impressions. Consequently the embryo that is produced is (accordingly affected), because like the father and mother were disposed during intercourse, thus the children brought forth by them are disposed. And because of this, reproductive intercourse must be avoided when feeling anger or sadness and more generally when experiencing any kind of passion of the powers of the soul and the body, or when (it is done) quickly and frantically, for because of this wise men engender stupid children, as Alexander Aphrodisias says. Hence those engendered through fearful adultery or fornication are of worse quality. But this is not the case in other animals, for most of them remain in the same emotional state (during intercourse); and this is the case especially for (animals) who are slow and inactive in intercourse, as is the case in pigs, and in (animals) who feel less pleasure during intercourse. There are many factors that influence individual resemblances, and (these factors) vary more in humans than in other (animals). The first is the formative power of the parent that is emitted with the seeds which aims at producing resemblances so that the bald engender bald children, the grey-eyed grey-eyed children and the cross-eyed cross-eyed children, as stated in the Book on air and water. Resemblance also depends on the force of the imagination and especially in women when the sperm is introduced into the womb. It converts the nature of the sperm to the imagined thing, as discussed above with respect to sheep. Thirdly, (resemblance) depends on the celestial forms which the Indians and the Chaldeans discovered and situated in the heavens. Hence Ptolemy says in the ninth statement of the Centiloquium the face of this world is subject to the heavenly faces and figures [ ] Resemblance or its opposite also occurs because of the receptiveness or resistance of female matter, i. e the menstrual blood, that makes itself disposed or indisposed to the power of the agent. And Avicenna attributes to Galen the opinion that women have an active power that causes resemblance (too). Since resemblance depends on a variety of causes, especially in humans, it follows that resemblance varies greatly, and because of this the offspring in humans resembles the parents less than in other (animals). Then (Aristotle) identifies another cause by saying that in humans the individual resemblances between offspring and parents are less perfect than in other (animals), because they often do not carry out intercourse in the manner necessary for producing resemblance. Because of the fervor of concupiscence and the violent motions which man experiences more than other animals during intercourse, because intercourse gives him immense pleasure, he does not observe what is necessary for intercourse to be reproductive and resemblance inducing. Right after his seed is spent he feels aversion and regret, on account of his inordinate movements, and contrary to most other animals he does not stay long enough for sperm to be rightly received in the womb and for the coitus from which generation proceeds to be completed and thus resemblance to occur. For as Avicenna states in (fen) 20 of the 3rd (book), we must have intercourse after menstruation, and the woman must be stimulated to feel pleasure, so that man and woman emit at the same time. [ ] And because males do not respect this art during intercourse,

9 9 intercourse is often sterile, or even when it is not sterile, there will be no individual resemblances in the offspring. There is yet another cause, because in humans one expects resemblances in more aspects than in other (animals), both as far as the shape of the body parts and the other perceptible (bodily) accidents are concerned, as in the qualities of the soul. But it is more difficult to reduce various things into one and keep them as such, than is the case for few things, etc.. Michel Montaigne ( ), Essais De la ressemblance des enfans aux peres [ ] il me semble que parmy les choses que nous voyons ordinairement, il y a des estrangetez si incomprehensibles, qu elles surpassent toute la difficulté des miracles. Quel monstre est-ce, que ceste goutte de semence, dequoy nous sommes produits, porte en soy les impressions, non de la forme corporelle seulement, mais des pensemens et des inclinations de nos peres? Ceste goutte d eau, où loge elle ce nombre infiny de formes? Et comme portent elles ces ressemblances, d un progrez si temeraire et si desreglé, que l arriere fils respondra à son bisayeul, le nepveu à l oncle? En la famille de Lepidus à Rome, il y en a eu trois, non de suite, mais par intervalles, qui nasquirent un mesme oeuil couvert de cartilage. A Thebes il y avoit une race qui portoit dés le ventre de la mere, la forme d un fer de lance, et qui ne le portoit, estoit tenu illegitime. Aristote dit qu en certaine nation, où les femmes estoient communes, on assignoit les enfans à leurs peres, par la ressemblance. Il est à croire que je dois à mon pere ceste qualité pierreuse: car il mourut merveilleusement affligé d une grosse pierre, qu il avoit en la vessie: Il ne s apperceut de son mal, que le soixante septiesme an de son aage: et avant cela il n'en avoit eu aucune menasse ou ressentiment, aux reins, aux costez, ny ailleurs: et avoit vescu jusques lors, en une heureuse santé, et bien peu subjette à maladies, et dura encores sept ans en ce mal, trainant une fin de vie bien douloureuse. J estoy nay vingt cinq ans et plus, avant sa maladie, et durant le cours de son meilleur estat, le troisiesme de ses enfans en rang de naissance. Où se couvoit tant de temps, la propension à ce defaut? Et lors qu il estoit si loing du mal, ceste legere piece de sa substance, dequoy il me bastit, comment en portoit elle pour sa part, une si grande impression? Et comment encore si couverte, que quarante cinq ans apres, j aye commencé à m en ressentir? seul jusques à ceste heure, entre tant de freres, et de soeurs, et tous d une mere. Qui m'esclaircira de ce progrez, je le croiray d'autant d autres miracles qu il voudra : pourveu que, comme ils font, il ne me donne en payement, une doctrine beaucoup plus difficile et fantastique, que n'est la chose mesme. Que les medecins excusent un peu ma liberté: car par ceste mesme infusion et insinuation fatale, j ay receu la haine et le mespris de leur doctrine. Ceste antipathie, que j'ay à leur art, m est hereditaire. [ ] On the resemblance of children to their fathers [ ] it seems to me that among the things which we see quite regularly there are some so strange and incomprehensible that they surpass all that is problematic in miracles. What a prodigious thing it is that within the drop of semen which brings us forth there are stamped the characteristics not only of the bodily form of our forefathers but of their ways of thinking and their slant of mind. Where can that drop of fluid lodge such an infinite number of Forms? How does it come to transmit these resemblances in so casual and random a manner that the great-grandson is like his great-grandfather, the nephew like his uncle? In the family of Lepidus in Rome there were born three

10 0 children (not all at once; there were gaps between them) with cartilage over the very same eye. There was a whole family in Thebes whose members all bore birthmarks shaped like a lance-head; any child who did not do so was held to be illegitimate. According to Aristotle there is a certain nation where they have wives in common and where children were assigned to fathers by resemblances. We can assume that it is to my father that I owe my propensity to the stone, for he died dreadfully afflicted by a large stone in the bladder. He was not aware of it until he was sixty-seven; he had experienced no sign or symptom of it beforehand, in his loins or his sides or anywhere else. Until then he had not been subject to much illness and had in fact enjoyed excellent health; he lasted another seven years with that affliction, lingering towards a very painful end. Now I was born twenty-five years and more before he fell ill, during his most vigorous period: I was his third child. During all that time where did that propensity for this affliction lie a-brooding? When his own illness was still so far off, how did that little piece of his own substance which went to make me manage to transmit so marked a characteristic to me? And how was it so hidden that I only began to be aware of it forty-five years later so far the only one to do so out of so many brothers and sisters, all from the same mother? If anyone can tell me how this comes about I will trust his explanation of as many other miracles as he likes providing that he does not fob me off (as they usually do) with a theory which is more difficult and more fanciful than the thing itself. Doctors will have to pardon my liberty a while, but from that same ejaculation and penetration I was destined to receive my loathing and contempt for their dogmas: my antipathy to their Art is hereditary. (Translation M. A. Screech, Penguin classics).