Contribution of Meals and Snacks to Nutrient Intake of Male and Female Elite Figure Skaters During Peak Competitive Season

Transcription

1 Original Research Contribution of Meals and Snacks to Nutrient Intake of Male and Female Elite Figure Skaters During Peak Competitive Season Paula J. Ziegler, PhD, RD, Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Judy A. Nelson, MS, Corrinna Lawrence, BS, and Brandy Baciak, MS, RD Gerber Products Company, Summit, New Jersey (P.J.Z.), Department of Nutrition, Georgia State University, University Plaza, Atlanta, Georgia (S.S.J., C.L., B.B.), United States Olympic Committee, One Olympic Plaza, Colorado Springs, Colorado (J.A.N.) Key words: figure skaters, meal patterns, macronutrient, micronutrient Objective: To examine the contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite male and female figure skaters during their competitive season. Subjects: Male (n 46) and female (n 48) figure skaters who participated in the 1999 U.S. National Figure Skating Championships completed the study. Methods: Each athlete completed three-day food records, during the athlete s competitive season. Food records were analyzed using Nutritionist V software. Macronutrient and micronutrient contributions from meals were assessed. Results: Lunch and dinner meals were the main contributors to the total calorie intake of these skaters (27% and 32%, respectively). Likewise, lunch and dinner were the main contributors to the total protein (27% and 41%), carbohydrate (26% and 29%), fat (30% and 32%), saturated fat (29% and 32%) and polyunsaturated fat (31% and 32%) intakes. Dinner was the main source of the monounsaturated fat (34%), cholesterol (40%) and dietary fiber (34%). Breakfast was the main source of dietary folate (36%), whereas iron and calcium intakes were mainly contributed by breakfast and dinner (29% and 32%, 27% and 29%, respectively). Conclusion: These elite figure skaters appear to be starting their day with low energy reserves and therefore need to be educated about the benefits of consuming breakfast. These athletes also need to be educated about consuming adequate calories throughout the day in order to meet the energy needs of their activity. It is thus important to monitor eating patterns throughout the day to ensure adequate energy intake to sustain the physical and mental aspects of the athletes training and performance. INTRODUCTION Figure skating enjoys worldwide popularity. The increasing competitiveness of the sport raises concerns about the health of these athletes, which may be compromised due to inadequate nutrient intake [1 5]. Nutrient intake may be influenced by factors such as lack of time, hectic training schedule and increased emphasis on physical features, such as leanness and body image [6]. Several studies have shown that many skaters are not consuming adequate amounts of energy; this not only can influence performance, but can also influence the risk of injury, bone health and reproductive health of these skaters [1 6]. Although dietary intake research has examined the impact of single nutrients, single foods or meals on physiological responses, few studies have been conducted to examine the food habits, i.e. eating patterns, of these competitive figure skaters [7]. Knowledge of food habits of these athletes is necessary to provide appropriate nutritional advice to the athletes [8]. Eating patterns are behaviors that develop over the years and may be influenced by physiological and social factors. Of Presented in part at the Experimental Biology Annual Meetings, April 2000, San Diego, California. Address reprint requests to: Satya S. Jonnalagadda, PhD, RD, Department of Nutrition, Room 839 Urban Life Building, 140 Decatur Street, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA sjonn@gsu.edu Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 21, No. 2, (2002) Published by the American College of Nutrition 114

2 the four meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks) typically consumed by individuals, breakfast is considered the most important meal of the day and has been observed to influence cognitive abilities and academic achievements in school-aged children. Pollitt [9] suggests that omission of breakfast could significantly alter metabolism, resulting in reduced nutrient availability to the brain, which in turn can influence an individual s behavior. On the other hand, consumption of lunch has been observed to result in decreased alertness and performance efficiency [10, 11]. The post-lunch dip in functional abilities appears to occur approximately one hour after lunch and continue for an additional hour. Craig and Richardson [12] observed changes in performance based on the size of the lunch consumed, with an increase in performance after a small and light meal compared to a large and heavy meal. Additionally, macronutrient composition of a meal can influence mental abilities and mood. Lloyd et al. [10] observed that a mediumfat, low-carbohydrate or high-fat, low-carbohydrate meal at midday resulted in an increase in reaction time to stimulus and individuals were more drowsy and confused compared to a medium-fat, medium-carbohydrate meal. Similarly, the evening meal may have a significant impact on mental functioning [13]. Snacks can also contribute a significant proportion to total energy intake. They are typically consumed late morning, afternoon and evening [14] and can contribute to the nutritional quality of the total diet [15]. Kanarek and Swiney [16] have noted afternoon snacks to have positive effects on cognitive performance. Because of these diverse effects of meals it is important to monitor eating patterns of elite athletes since their food consumption patterns can impact on their training and performance. Given the physical demands of participation in sports and the constraints placed on elite athletes because of their training, competition and other routine daily activities, such as school and work, it is important to ensure that these active individuals are consuming sufficient food to meet their daily energy needs. Strategies, such as high carbohydrate-low fat diets, increased frequency of meals and snacking, may need to be incorporated into the daily routine of these athletes to ensure adequate calorie intake during the various times of the day to carry out their wide range of activities. Feeding plans that include frequent meals and/or mini meals may be appropriate to incorporate into the athletes training and performance schedule to ensure adequate delivery of energy during performance [17]. Physiological and metabolic responses during performance can also be influenced by the athletes meal patterns [18]. A few studies in the past have observed that athletes may have either grazing food habits or an increased frequency of food consumption, especially in sports with high-energy requirements [19]. Triathletes and runners have been noted to consume five to six meals per day while cyclists consume eight to ten meals per day [19]. This practice of small meals and snacks, consumed over the course of the day, may ensure that the energy needs are met during various stages of activity and may also facilitate increased energy consumption and greater food selection, while potentially eliminating gastrointestinal discomfort commonly associated with consumption of a large meal. Therefore, it is important to gain an understanding of athletes meal consumption pattern and the nutrient distribution in order to ensure that energy needs throughout the day are met. Thus the purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of daily meals to the macronutrient and select micronutrient intake of elite male and female U.S. figure skaters during their competitive season. The main hypothesis of this study was that breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack will contribute equally to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of the elite male and female figure skaters. METHODS Subjects The present study was conducted during the peak competitive season of these athletes prior to the start of the 1999 U.S. Figure Skating National Championships at Salt Lake City, UT. Forty-six male and forty-eight female figure skaters participated in the study. Informed consent forms describing the objectives and requirements of the study and any risks and benefits that might occur were signed by study participants and where necessary by the legal guardian prior to participation in the study. The Sports Medicine Advisory Board of the United States Figure Skating Association approved the study. Dietary Intake Three-day food records were collected two weeks prior to the start of the championships, which represent intake during the peak competitive season of these elite figure skaters. No one method of dietary assessment is error proof and each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. However, it has been shown that three-day food records are adequate in estimating habitual energy intake to within 90% of actual values in groups as small as 13 individuals [20]. The three days included two non-consecutive weekdays and one weekend day. Participants were given detailed instructions for completing the food records, and the research dietitian reviewed each record for accuracy and completeness with the skater. Portion sizes were estimated using common household measures such as cups, glasses, bowls, teaspoons and tablespoons along with individual food items/units. The figure skaters were instructed to provide as much detail as possible of the foods and fluids consumed, including brand names, and recipes for home cooked foods. In order to determine the contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient content of the diets of these figure skaters, the athletes were instructed to record the time of consumption of the food, and, based on the time of reported intake, the meals were coded as follows: breakfast (6am 8:59am), lunch (11am 1:59pm), dinner (4pm 7:59pm), JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 115

3 and snack (any food or drink consumed during the following time periods 9am 10:59am, 2pm 3:59pm, 8pm 5:59am) [21]. Although there are several ways of examining eating patterns, we chose the above method to minimize coding error by participants and data entry personnel and also since we were interested in examining the contribution of individual meals to nutrient intake. Also, the above meal timings reflect typical training and performance days of the skaters. The food records were analyzed using Nutritionist V software (First Databank, Inc., San Bruno, CA). The contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake was also analyzed. The same research dietitian entered the food intake data into the Nutritionist V software for all of the participants, and the same individual coded the meals based on the above mentioned categorization. In case a particular food item was not available in the database, then the recipe and/or manufacturer s nutrient information was entered into the database. All participants received a report of their nutrient intake analysis, and appropriate counseling was provided to set individual dietary goals. Anthropometric Measurements The height and weight (with light clothing and without shoes) of all subjects were determined using calibrated scales. All measurements were taken first thing in the morning prior to any activity and a single measurement was made. Data Analysis The data collected were analyzed using SPSS (Version 9.0, Chicago, IL) to provide descriptive information (Mean SE) for all study variables. Additionally, within each gender group, the contribution of the meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake was tested using the general linear model repeated measures analysis of variance, and the Bonferroni posthoc test, which adjusts for multiple comparisons, was used to determine differences between meals (p 0.05). RESULTS Table 1 presents the characteristics of the figure skaters. The male and female skaters were young, lean individuals, with a Table 1. Characteristics of elite male and female figure skaters Males (n 46) Females (n 48) Age (years) Height (inches) Weight (lbs) BMI (kg/m 2 ) mean body mass index (BMI) of 21.2 and 18.5 kg/m 2, respectively. Overall, the reported dietary intakes of these figure skaters suggest that they meet the macronutrient recommendations (Table 2). Compared to the dietary guidelines for the general population, the male figure skaters had high carbohydrate, protein, saturated fat and cholesterol intake (Table 2). The female figure skaters had low fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber intakes (Table 2). The micronutrient intakes of the female figure skaters did not meet the dietary recommendations for these nutrients (Table 2). The contribution of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacks to the macronutrient intake and select micronutrient intake of male and female figure skaters are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Table 5 presents the percent contribution of the meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of these athletes. The male figure skaters had the lowest energy intake at breakfast and the greatest energy intake at dinner (Tables 3 and 5). Lunch was the other major meal providing a greater proportion of their energy intake. A similar trend was observed with intake of all macronutrients including dietary fiber (Tables 3 and 5). The folate intake was mainly obtained from breakfast, whereas breakfast and dinner contributed to iron and calcium intake of the male skaters (Tables 3 and 5). On the average, the male figure skaters reported consuming 1.35 ( 0.86) snacks per day. Similar to the meal patterns of the male skaters, dinner and lunch were the main contributors to the energy intake of the Table 2. Macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite male and female figure skaters Males (n 46) Females (n 48) Energy (kcal) Carbohydrate Gram % Energy Protein Gram % Energy Total Fat Gram % Energy Saturated Fat (SFA) Gram % Energy Monounsaturated Fat (MUFA) Gram % Energy Polyunsaturated Fat (PUFA) Gram % Energy Cholesterol (mg) Total Dietary Fiber (g) Folate (mcg) Iron (mg) Calcium (mg) VOL. 21, NO. 2

4 Table 3. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite male figure skaters (n 46) Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack Calories ab a b Protein (g) ab acd bce de Carbohydrate (g) 82 6 a a Total Fat (g) ab 26 2 a 25 2 b 21 3 Saturated Fat (g) a a Monounsaturated Fat (g) a a Polyunsaturated Fat (g) ab a bc c Cholesterol (mg) a 83 9 b 94 7 c 45 8 abc Dietary Fiber (g) a ab b Folate (mcg) abc 58 6 ad 89 8 bd c Iron (mg) a a Calcium (mg) abcde Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different, p Table 4. Contribution of meals to the macronutrient and micronutrient intake of elite female figure skaters (n 41) Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack Calories ab a b Protein (g) ab ac 27 2 bcd d Carbohydrate (g) Total Fat (g) ab a b 11 2 Saturated Fat (g) ab a b Monounsaturated Fat (g) Polyunsaturated Fat (g) Cholesterol (mg) a ab b Dietary Fiber (g) a b ac bc Folate (mcg) 85 9 abc a b c Iron (mg) a b ab Calcium (mg) abcd Values within a row with similar superscripts are significantly different, p Table 5. Percent contribution of meals to macronutrient and micronutrient intake of male and female elite figure skaters Breakfast Lunch Dinner Snack Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Calories Protein Carbohydrate Total Fat Saturated Fat Monounsaturated Fat Polyunsaturated Fat Cholesterol Dietary Fiber Folate Iron Calcium female skaters (Tables 4 and 5). Additionally, dinner contributed substantially to the protein intake of the female figure skaters, while lunch and dinner were the predominant sources of fat, cholesterol and dietary fiber intake (Tables 4 and 5). As in the case of the diets of the male skaters, breakfast was the main contributor to the folate intake, while breakfast and dinner equally contributed to iron and calcium intake (Tables 4 and 5). The female skaters on average reported consuming 1.36 ( 0.62) snacks per day. Among both genders, significant differences were observed in the contribution of the meals to the JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 117

5 individual macronutrient and micronutrient intake of these figure skaters (Tables 3, and 4). The most common snack foods consumed by these athletes (males and females) were from the dairy group (17.6%), which included milk, yogurt, ice cream and cheese. Other foods commonly consumed as snacks included fruit (9.5%), ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, cereal bars (9.3%), processed meats and frozen entrees (8.9%), breads such as bagels, biscuits, donuts (8.1%), fruit and sport drinks (6.5%), fruit juices (5.7%), cookies (5.2%), candy (4.7%), vegetables (4.4%), crackers (3.6%), hot beverages (3.2%), nutritional supplements such as Ensure, Boost (2.5%), ready-to-drink soups (2%), cakes, pies (2.1%) and nuts (1%). DISCUSSION In 1994 the International Union of Nutritional Sciences established a committee on nutrition and food habits to examine the impact of changing food choices and habits on nutritional status emphasizing the significance of the impact on nutritional status and dietary habits of individuals [7]. The present study is in line with these recommendations, and the results should be of benefit to individuals working with athletes. Assessment of meal patterns not only can facilitate the development of health promotion and prevention programs, but also can provide information about desirable dietary behaviors and serve as an aid for nutritional counseling. It is a well-established fact that dietary assessment methodology has its limitations. Although the use of food records has its limitations, in the present study group we have found this system to work the best given the athletes schedules. Also, these athletes are motivated individuals and are eager to learn about their diet and ways of improving it. Furthermore, the instructions provided by the research dietitian, the emphasis on the significance of accuracy and completeness of the information provided are reinforced with a review of the food records and the results of the nutrient analysis. We have reason to believe that the dietary intake information provided by the figure skaters is complete and accurate; however, it should be acknowledged that some under- and over-estimation of intake maybe occurring even among this group of motivated athletes. The method of classification of meals based on time of consumption has been used previously in order to standardize definitions of meals [21]. Although athletes could have been relied upon to classify their intake into the various meals, the use of a standardized coding system minimizes inter-individual variation in meal classification. Furthermore, given that only a single body weight measurement was taken, the adequacy of the dietary intake in meeting the energy needs of these athletes cannot be accurately determined. Given the inherent limitations of dietary assessment, the data from the present study should be taken to present information regarding the meal patterns of this group of elite figure skaters and should not be used to classify individual athletes. Despite the limitations of the study methodology, results of the present study are similar to those observed in the general population. Siega-Riz et al. [22] observed that 57% to 59% of adolescents consumed three meals per day, with males having a more consistent eating pattern than females. Among adolescents, dinner was the most commonly consumed meal, followed by breakfast and lunch. Adolescents consuming at least two meals were observed to have adequate intakes of calcium, iron, vitamin E and fiber compared to those with other eating patterns. This suggests that consistent meal patterns may have a significant impact on both macronutrient and micronutrient intake of individuals and additionally on athletic performance of athletes. Studies of endurance athletes show that snack foods provide 24% to 35% of the total energy intake, while in the present study, snack foods and breakfast foods provided 20% to 22% of the total energy intake and dinner contributed 31% to 32% of the total energy intake with the remaining from lunch. National surveys, such as CSFII, show that snacks provide 10% to 20% of total energy intake in the general population. Additionally, those individuals who snacked were observed to consume a nutritionally adequate diet. Butterworth et al. [21] observed that breakfast, lunch and dinner provided 71.5% of the total calorie intake of endurance runners, with dinner providing the highest percent of total energy intake (34%), snacks providing 28.5% and breakfast providing the lowest percent energy (13.7%), similar to that observed in the present study. Similarly, Lindeman [23] observed triathletes to be frequent eaters, consuming foods and beverages three to 16 times per day, including eating 8.9 meals or snacks per day. This eating pattern could potentially guarantee that these active individuals incorporate adequate energy intake into their hectic training and competition schedule. It has also been suggested that decreasing leisure time and appetite suppression as a result of exercise may prompt athletes to adopt these frequent smallmeals eating patterns [23]. Female athletes in the sports of golf, field hockey, cross-country and tennis were observed to have lower energy intakes during their competitive season with low intakes of calcium and iron and adequate intakes of vitamins, suggesting that these females may be consuming fewer meals during their competitive season [24]. Thus individuals working with athletes may need to provide them with tips for preparing small, quick to fix meals that can be consumed on the run, which will meet their energy needs during training and performance. Van Erp-Baart et al. [8] examined the contribution of breakfast, dinner, lunch and snacks to nutrient intake of elite endurance, strength and team sports athletes. In this group, snacks contributed 32% to 37% of total energy intake with breakfast contributing the lowest energy intake ( 20% energy). Breakfast, lunch and dinner contributed 15% to 20% of daily intake, dinner provided 40% of protein intake and 30% of fat intake while snacks provided 30% of carbohydrate and 30% of fat intake, suggesting that nutrient quality of snacks consumed by 118 VOL. 21, NO. 2

6 these athletes should be given special attention considering that they contribute significantly to their dietary intake. In the present study these figure skaters were observed to consume a wide variety of foods as snacks, which if incorporated more frequently into their eating patterns could assist with meeting their energy and nutrient needs. The results of the present study and earlier studies thus suggest that athletes should be encouraged to consume more frequent meals and to distribute their energy intake between the meals based on their activity schedules. Small, frequent meals that are energy and nutrient dense will assist athletes with meeting their energy and nutrient needs while at the same time prevent the adverse gastrointestinal consequences of a large meal, prevent overeating, and can safeguard against fatigue. Additionally, since many of these athletes begin their training very early in the morning, a circumstance which may not be conducive to eating breakfast, they should be encouraged to pack nutrient dense foods which can be consumed during breaks in their training. Nutrition education should be provided to the athletes to assist them with the preparation of easy and ready to use meals and snacks. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was supported by the U.S. Figure Skating Association, and the U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO; and Gerber Products Company, Summit, N.J. REFERENCES 1. Delistray DA, Reisman EJ, Snipes M: A physiological and nutritional profile of young female figure skaters. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 32: , Ziegler PJ, Nelson JA, Jonnalagadda SS: Nutritional and physiological status of U.S. national figure skaters. Int J Sport Nutr 9: , Ziegler P, Hensley S, Roppke JB, Whitaker SH, Craig BW, Drewnowski A: Eating attitudes and energy intakes of female skaters. Med Sci Sports Exerc 30: , Ziegler PJ, Khoo CS, Kris-Etherton SS, Jonnalagadda SS, Sherr B, Nelson JA: Nutritional status of nationally ranked junior US figure skaters. J Am Diet Assoc 98: , Ziegler J, Khoo CS, Sherr B, Nelson JA, Larson WM, Drewnowski A: Body image and dieting behaviors among elite figure skaters. Int J Eat Disord 24: , Lipetz J, Kruse RJ: Injuries and special concerns of female figure skaters. Clin Sports Med 19: , Oltersdorf J, Schlettwein-Gsell D, Winkler G: Assessing eating patterns an emerging research topic in nutritional sciences: introduction to the symposium. Appetite 32:1 7, Van Erp-Baart AMJ, Saris WHM, Binkhorst RA, Vos JA, Elvers JWH: Nationwide survey on nutritional habits in elite athletes. Part 1. Energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat intake. Int J Sports Med 10(Suppl):S3 S10, Pollitt E: Does breakfast make a difference in school? J Am Diet Assoc 95: , Lloyd HM, Green MW, Rogers PJ: Mood and cognitive performance effects of isocaloric lunches differing in fat and carbohydrate content. Physiol Behv 56:51 57, Smith A, Ralph A, McNeil G: Influences of meal size on postlunch changes in performance efficiency, mood and cardiovascular function. Appetite 16:85 91, Craig A, Richardson E: Effects of experimental and habitual lunchsize on performance, arousal, hunger and mood. Intl Arch Occupt Envir Health 61: , Smith A, Maben A, Brockman P: Effects of evening meals and caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and cardiovascular function. Appetite 22: 56 65, Cross AT, Babicz D, Cushman LF: Snacking patterns among 1,800 adults and children. J Am Diet Assoc 94: , Gatenby SJ: Eating frequency: methodological and dietary aspects. Br J Nutr 77(Suppl):S7 S20, Kanarek RB, Swinney D: Effects of food snacks on cognitive performance in male college students. Appetite 14:15 27, American Dietetic Association: Timely statement of the American Dietetic Association: nutrition guidance for adolescent athletes in organized sports. J Am Diet Assoc 96: , Hawley JA, Burke LM: Effect of meal frequency and timing on physical performance. Br J Nutr 77(Suppl 1):S91 S103, Burke LM, Gollan RA, Read RSD: Dietary intakes and food use of groups of elite Australian male athletes. Int J Sport Nutr 1: , Basiotis PP, Welsh SO, Cronin FJ, Kelsay JL, Mertz W: Number of days of food intake records required to estimate individual and group nutrient intakes with defined confidence. J Nutr 117: , Butterworth DE, Nieman DC, Butler JV, Herring JL: Food intake patterns of marathon runners. Intl J Sport Nutr 4:1 7, Siega-Riz AM, Carson T, Popkin B: Three squares or mostly snacks what do teens really eat? A sociodemographic study of meal patterns. J Adol Health 22:29 36, Lindeman AK: Eating and training habits of triathletes: a balancing act. J Am Diet Assoc 90: , Nutter J: Seasonal changes in female athletes diets. Intl J Sport Nutr 1: , Received March 16, 2001; revision accepted November 9, JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF NUTRITION 119