(UP) Aromatherapy Science. A guide for healthcare professionals. Maria Lis-Balchin. BSc, PhD

Transcription

1 Aromatherapy Science A guide for healthcare professionals Maria Lis-Balchin BSc, PhD Reader in Applied Biochemistry (retired) Honorary Research Fellow (presently] School of Applied Science London South Bank University London, UK (UP) London Chicago Pharmaceutical Press

2 Preface xi About the author Abbreviations xv xiii Introduction ] Definitions of aromatherapy 1 Introduction to aromatherapy concepts 1 What is an aromatherapist? 2 Aromatherapy, aromatology and aromachology 2 Aromatherapy practice in the UK and USA 3 Common uses of essential oils 3 Proven effects of essential oils 4 Unproven aromatherapeutic virtues 5 Conclusion 5 Historical background to aromatherapy 7 Introduction 7 Incense: inhalation effects 7 Scented plants used as incense in Ancient Egypt 7 Uses of incense 9 Perfume and cosmetics: precursors of cosmetological aromatherapy 10 Medicinal uses: precursors of aromatology or 'clinical' aromatherapy 1 1 Modern perfumery 13 Conclusion 15 Aromatherapy practice 17 Introduction 17 Aromatherapy basics 17 Massage using essential oils 20 Recent literature review of the benefits of massage 23 Internal usage of essential oils 27 Use of pure or synthetic components 28 Therapeutic claims for the application of essential oils 29 False claims challenged in court 29 Conclusion 30

3 vi Contents Chemistry of essential oils 31 Essential oils: definition 31 Essential oil storage organelles 31 Aetiology of essential oil components 32 Heterogeneity in bioactivity of the chemical groups 33 Variation in chemical composition of natural essential oils 34 Organic essential oils 35 Extraction of essential oils 35 Phytols or hydrosols or distillation waters 37 Yield and cost of essential oils 38 Modification of the essential oil 39 Standardisation 39 Adulteration of essential oils 39 Conclusion 43 The bioactivity of essential oils 45 Introduction 45 Pharmacological studies on essential oils: in vivo and in vitro 45 Antimicrobial effects 51 Differences in bioactivity due to mistakes in nomenclature 54 Miscellaneous actions 55 Conclusion 57 Science of smell and psychological effects 59 Aromachology 59 Introduction to odour and receptors in the brain 60 Primary odours, pheromones and behaviour 62 Perfumes: their commercial uses 63 Physiological responses to essential oils and psychophysiology 67 Alternative or complementary medicine 73 Conclusion 74 The safety issue in aromatherapy 75 Introduction 75 General guidance for essential oil purchase and storage 76 Toxicity testing in animals 76 GRAS status/noels 78 Poisonous chemicals 78 Toxicity in humans 79 Toxicity in young children: a special case 82 Selected toxicities of certain essential oils and their components 82 Abortifacient and teratogenic oils 83 Antifertility oils 84 Genotoxic oils 84

4 VII Neurotoxic oils 84 Absolutes and concretes 85 Phytols 85 Interactions between essential oils and conventional medicines or medical conditions 86 The phenomenon of 'quenching': true or false? 87 Possible dangers of novel essential oils and plant extracts 87 Dangerous practices of some aromatherapists 88 'Safe' essential oils and their toxicity 89 Possible dangers of using essential oils internally and externally in large doses 89 Reporting of adverse effects by aromatherapists 90 Safety warnings in the aromatherapy industry 91 Legislation: present and future 91 Conclusion 92 8 Clinical studies Introduction 93 Recent clinical studies 94 Past clinical studies 95 Use of essential oils mainly as chemical agents Single-case studies 101 Problems arising in aromatherapy studies 102 Conclusion Introduction to the monographs 105 Angelica oil 109 Aniseed and star anise Basil oil 117 Bay oils: laurel and pimenta 120 Benzoin tinctures and resinoids 123 Bergamot oil 126 Buchu leaf oil 129 Cajuputoil 132 Camphor oil 135 Carrot seed oil 138 Cassia oil 141 Cedarwood oil 144 Celery seed oil 147 Chamomile German oil 150 Chamomile Roman oil 155 Cinnamon oil 159 Citronella oil 164 Clary sage oil 167 Clove oil 1 70 Cornmint oil 174 Cubeb oil 177 Cypress oil 1 79 Elecampane oil 1 82 Eucalyptus oils 1 84 Fennel oil 190 Frankincense oil 193 Geranium oil 196 Ginger oil 202 Ho leaf oil 205 Hyssop oil 207

5 VIM Contents Jasmine absolute 210 Juniper oil 213 Kanuka oil 216 Lavender oil 219 Lemon balm oil/melissa essential oil 227 Lemon oil 231 Lemongrass oil 235 Litsea cubeba oil 238 Manuka oil 240 Marjoram oil 244 Myrrh oil 248 Myrtle oil 251 Nerolioil 253 Nutmeg oil 256 Orange oil 260 Palmarosa oil 264 Parsley oil 267 Patchouli oil 270 Pepper oil 273 Peppermint oil 275 Peru balsam 282 Petitgrain oil 286 Pine oil 289 Rose oil 292 Rosemary oil 296 Rosewood oil 300 Sage oil 303 Sandalwood oil 307 Savory oil 310 Spearmint oil 312 Spike lavender oil 315 Tea tree oil 318 Thyme oil 326 Valerian oil 330 Vanilla tincture/absolute 333 Wintergreen oil 335 Yarrow root oil 338 Ylang ylang oil 341 Floral absolutes and essential oils (other than jasmine, rose, lavender, neroli) 344 Bibliography 351 Appendix Bioactivity of commercial essential oils: antibacterial and antifungal activities Appendix Pharmacological properties of some commercial essential oils on electrically stimulated smooth muscle of guinea-pig ileum in vitro Appendix Pharmacological effect of selected essential oils on rat uterus compared with that on the guinea-pig ileum in vitro Appendix Pharmacological effect of components on rat uterus compared with that on guinea-pig ileum in vitro Appendix Pharmacological effects of blends of essential oils on rat uterus compared with that on guinea-pig ileum in vitro Appendix Correlation between 1,8-cineole content of commercial essential oils and bioactivity Appendix 7 Comparison of the antibacterial and antifungal properties of selected essential oils 405

6 IX Appendix Mode of adulteration of the most commonly used essential oils Appendix 9 Drop volume versus weight of certain essential oils/absolutes 408 Appendix Weight of one drop of essential oils using the droppers provided with the bottles Appendix Comparison of the actual effect of essential oils on guinea-pig ileum in vitro and the predicted effects using chemical composition and aromatherapists' predictions Appendix Comparison of the actual effect of essential oil blends on guinea-pig ileum and the predicted effects using chemical composition and aromatherapists' predictions Appendix The predicted effect (percentage of components at the retention times shown) of essential oils on guinea-pig ileum in vitro Appendix Psychological and physiological effects of odours: comparison of sedative and stimulant essential oils as determined by using different parameters by different researchers Appendix Comparison of sedative and stimulant components as determined by using different parameters by different researchers Appendix Some techniques used for psychophysiological measurements in humans Appendix Evidence for transfer of components of essential oils into blood/brain when applied to skin, orally or by inhalation Appendix 'Absorption' of essential oils from the animal skin, i.e. rate of disappearance Appendix Common uses of essential oils Appendix Miscellaneous functions of essential oils according to pharmacopoeias Appendix Established uses of essential oils/components: conventional rather than complementary or alternative uses Appendix RIFM toxicological monographs Appendix RIFM recommended limit for safe use of essential oils Appendix 24 Hazards and toxicity: CHIP Appendix 25 Aspiration hazards (R65) Appendix Safety data: CHIP symbols explained in detail Appendix New 7th Amendment: European Parliament 2002 Appendix Sensitisers and their essential oil sources

7 Appendix 29 Harmful and sensitising oils (EFFA-IOFI-IFRA) 442 Appendix List of banned oils/restricted oils: IFRA list Appendix Toxic or dangerous essential oils versus their usage as food additives Appendix Guide for non-scientists on making a judgement on the scientific merit of published papers on clinical studies and other research Appendix Some aromatherapy-related organisations Index 451