Imunost na infekcije. Stjecanje aktivne specifične imunosti. Imunološka obrana od mikroorganizama

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1 Imunost na infekcije parazitizam patogenost svojstvo parazita da nanosi štetu domaćinu mjeri se virulencijom infekcija ulaženje parazita u domaćina oportunistički parazitizam/infekcije 2 Nespecifični mehanizmi (prirođeni) - djeluju odmah! - najvažniji: fagocitozne stanice neutrofilni leukociti i makrofagi Specifični mehanizmi - aktiviraju se poslije - glavni predstavnici: limfociti i protutijela Fagocitozne stanice: dolaze do mjesta prodora napadača na taj način da izlaze iz krvnih žila u međustanični prostor (ekstravazacija) sudjeluju različite adhezijske molekule na površini fagocita i na žilnom endotelu te kemotaktične molekule (IL-8) Makrofagi: Imunološka obrana od mikroorganizama Fagocitoza + izlučivanje različitih citokina (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α) i drugih molekula (prostaglandini, NO, leukotrieni, čimbenik aktivacije trombocita) koje utječu na daljnji tijek imunoreakcije Stjecanje aktivne specifične imunosti jedinka sama stvara imunosne efektore Prirodnim putem - npr. preboljenje neke bolesti Cijepljenjem: - bakterijski toksini koji su obradom učinjeni neškodljivima (toksoidi) - mrtvi uzročnici - nevirulentnim *Komplikacije poslije cijepljenja: uzročnicima neimunološke = intenzivna lokalna reakcija, opća reakcija praćena povišenjem tjelesne temperature imunosne naravi = različiti oblici preosjetljivosti; najozbiljniji je postvakcinalni encefalitis

2 Specifična pasivna imunost Prirodno = unošenje gotovih protutijela - prijenos majčinih protutijela kroz posteljicu u tijeku trudnoće - preko kolostruma i mlijeka za vrijeme dojenja Umjetno - ubrizgavanjem ksenogeničnih (iz druge vrste) ili alogeničnih (iz druge jedinke iste vrste) specifičnih protutijela -zbog imunoreakcije primatelja na tuđa protutijela takav oblik zaštite ne traje dugo -može uzrokovati i reakcije preosjetljivosti (serumska bolest) 6 Interakcije virusa i stanice domaćina citotropnost virusa sklonost virusa da uđu u određene vrste stanica (vežu se za specifične receptore) Obrana protiv virusa mehanizmi: Humoralna imunost Čimbenici: 1. IFN-α i IFN-ß = luči ih zaražena stanica i od virusa zaštićuju stanice koje nisu zaražene 2. Protutijela (IgG, IgM, IgA) = neutralizacija virusa koji se još nalaze izvan stanice onemogućuju spajanje virusa sa staničnim receptorima ili sprječavaju odbacivanje virusne ovojnice (preduvjet za replikaciju virusa) Stanična imunost Čimbenici: 1. Makrofagi = prvi u dodiru s virusima 2. NK stanice = djeluju nespecifično, posebice na stanice kojima je smanjena ekspresija MHC I molekula 3. Limfociti CD8 + = ubijaju stanice na kojima prepoznaju virusne antigene zajedno sa vlastitim molekulama MHC- I 4. Limfociti CD4 + = privlače i aktiviraju makrofage; mogu djelovati i izravno na zaražene stanice koje na površini izražavaju molekule MHC-II Virusi inficiraju stanicu vežući se na njene površinske receptore Virusi se vežu na receptore na staničnoj površini Endocitoza virusa posredovana receptorima Acidifikacija endosoma poslije endocitoze uzrokuje stapanje virusa sa stanicom i ulazak virusne DNA Protutijela blokiraju vezanje virusa za receptore, a mogu i onemogućiti stapanje Neutralizacija virusa protutijelom

3 Stanična citotoksičnost ovisna o protutijelima (Antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; ADCC) Protutijela se vežu na antigene na površini ciljne stanice Fc receptori na NK stanicama prepoznaju vezano protutijelo Unakrsno povezivanje Fc receptora daje signal NK stanici da ubije ciljnu stanicu Ciljna stanica ulazi u apoptozu Izvanstanična neutralizacija virusa pomoću protutijela Iako NK stanice i T citotoksični limfociti prepoznaju ciljne stanice na različite načine, citolitički mehanizmi kojim uništavaju stanice su u osnovi isti. NK stanica prepoznaje ciljnu stanicu na dva načina: (1) nedostatak molekula MHC klase I na ciljnoj stanici (urođena imunost) ili (2) protutijela na površini ciljne stanice (specifična, stečena imunost) Događaji posredovani stanicama tijekom virusne infekcije 10 Djelovanje interferona antivirusno djelovanje nespecifično koči DNA i RNA sintezu u zaraženoj stanici domaćina koči sintezu proteina (elongacijski faktor EF-2, razgradnja trna) interferencija virusa = organizam je tijekom infekcije jednim virusom otporan na istodobnu infekciju nekim drugim virusom IFN-α, IFN-β 11 vezanje IFN-α i IFN-β za IFN-α stanični receptor zaražene stanice proizvodnja enzima 2,5-oligoadenilatsintetaze pregradnja ATP-a aktivacija endoribonukleaze razlaganje mrna antivirusno i antiproliferacijsko djelovanje IFN-γ imunoregulacijski učinak na limfocite T, B i NK pospješuje proizvodnja enzima protein kinaze protein kinaza fosforiliranjem inaktivira čimbenik elongacije 2 (elf-2; elongation factor) zaustavljanje sinteze proteina inducirana fosfodiesteraza odcjepljuje dio trna nemogućnost vezivanja aminokiselina na trna prestanak sinteze proteina fagocitozu (posebno opsoniziranih čestica) jer povećava broj receptora za ulomak Fc imunoglobulina staničnu citotoksičnost ovisnu o protutijelima (ADCC) Obrana protiv bakterija nespecifična humoralna specifična stanična oblik reakcije ovisi o biološkom ponašanju i svojstvima samih bakterija toksini endotoksini (dio st.st. bakterija koji se oslobađa nakon njene smrti) i egzotoksini (proizvod žive bakterije)

4 Obrana protiv bakterija Egzotoksin proizvode ga i Gram pozitivne i Gram negativne bakterije otpušta ga bakterijska stanica (najčešće kodiran plazmidom) protein više tipova (prema građi i načinu djelovanja) toplinski labilan (heat labile) specifični receptor na stanici domaćina specifični učinci u domaćinu mogu se proizvesti toksoidi tretiranjem toksina s formaldehidom (vakcinacija) Endotoksin proizvode ga samo Gram negativne bakterije sastavni dio stanične stijenke lipid A lipopolisaharida samo jedan tip endotoksina toplinski stabilan (heat stable) djeluje na različite stanice i sustave različiti opseg učinka na domaćina ne mogu se proizvesti toksoidi (oslabljeni toksini) Protutijela glavni humoralni čimbenici protubakterijske obrane: onemogućavanje adhezije bakterija za receptore stanica (IgA) neutralizacija bakterijskih toksina (IgG) aglutinacija (IgM) liza komplementom (IgM) opsonizacijsko djelovanje (IgG i IgM) aktivacija komplementa posredovanje u staničnoj citotoksičnosti (ADCC) Fagocitozne stanice makrofagi i limfociti T glavni stanični efektori protubakterijske obrane Makrofagi fagocitoza i ubijanje bakterijskih stanica citokinima utječu na diferencijaciju djevičanskih limfocita CD4 + u subpopulaciji T H 1 (u protubakterijskoj obrani važnija od T H 2) Limfociti CD8 + mogu ubiti stanice u kojima se bakterije nastavljaju razmnožavati Većina bakterija mora se prihvatiti na površinu stanice da bi započela infekciju Kolonizacija bakterija na staničnu površinu bakterijskom adhezijom Protutijela mogu spriječiti pričvršćivanje bakterija na površinu stanice (neutralizacija) Fc receptori i receptori za komplement udruženi (sinergirani) pospješuju fagocitozu bakterija i drugih mikroorganizama Protutijela sprječavaju adhezijsku kolonizaciju i ulazak u stanicu Bakterija je obložena komplementom i IgG protutijelima Kada se C3b komponenta komplementa veže na CR1, a protutijelo veže na Fc receptor, dolazi do fagocitoze bakterije Membrana makrofaga se stopi i stvori mjehurić - fagosom Lizosomi se stope s fagosomom i enzimima razgrade bakteriju Neke bakterije budu fagocitirane i razmnožavaju se unutar fagosoma Sprječavanje adhezije na membranama sluznice je od izuzetne važnosti; ovo je glavna uloga sekrecijskog IgA. Protutijela mogu aktivirati komplement (klasični put aktivacije), ali do aktivacije može doći i bez prisutnosti protutijela.

5 Obrana protiv parazita Imunoreakcija na parazite 17 Ovisi o: veličini parazita da li parazit živi unutar stanice ili izvan stanice o postojanju i o složenosti životnog ciklusa parazita Djelovanje protutijela IgA, IgG i IgM: Aktivacija komplementa Sprečavanje ulaska parazita u stanicu Ostvarivanje opsonizacijskog učinka Posredovanje u staničnoj citotoksičnosti ovisnoj o protutijelima (ADCC) Djelovanje protutijela IgE: Senzibilizacija mastocita i bazofilnih leukocita omogućeno oslobađanje medijatora nakon dodira tih stanica s parazitskim antigenima Stanična citotoksičnost ovisna o protutijelima (Antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity; ADCC) Protutijela se vežu na antigene na površini ciljne stanice Fc receptori na NK stanicama prepoznaju vezano protutijelo Iako NK stanice i T citotoksični limfociti prepoznaju ciljne stanice na različite načine, a citolitički mehanizmi kojim uništavaju stanice su u osnovi isti. Unakrsno povezivanje Fc receptora daje signal NK stanici da ubije ciljnu stanicu Ciljna stanica ulazi u apoptozu NK stanica prepoznaje ciljnu stanicu na dva načina: (1) nedostatak molekula MHC klase I na ciljnoj stanici (urođena imunost) ili (2) protutijela na površini ciljne stanice (specifična, stečena imunost) IgE zajedno s antigenom uzrokuje degranulaciju mast stanica (granule sadržavaju histamin i druge tvari koje potiču upalnu reakciju) Mast stanice, u odsutnosti antigena, imaju protutijela IgE vezana na FcεRI (razlika u odnosu na druge Fc receptore) Afinitet vezivanja IgE protutijela na FcεRI (10 10 M -1 ) je 100 do puta veća nego afinitet većine drugih Fc receptora za protutijela Mast stanica u mirovanju Mast stanica u mirovanju sadrži granule koje sadrže histamin i druge medijatore upale Aktivirana mast stanica Multivalentni antigen unakrsno veže IgE protutijelo i time uzrokuje oslobađanje sadržaja granula Degranulacija mast stanica

6 Uništavanje velikih parazita pomoću stanične citotoksičnosti posredovane protutijelima (ADCC) Imunoreakcija na parazite Makrofagi fagocitiraju i ubijaju male parazite neki nametnici mogu u makrofagu i dalje živjeti 1. moguć opstanak čestice u nepromijenjenom obliku (kemijski inertne tvari; čađa, azbest, kremen ili neki paraziti; Salmonella, Leishmania, BCG) 2. razmnožavanje unutar fagocita Trypanosoma cruzi u makrofagu; Chagas bolest; Američka tripanosomija 21 Imunoreakcija na parazite Eozinofilni leukociti (eozinofili) prijanjaju uz površinu parazita izlučuju toksične tvari koje oštećuju nametnika bitno pri uklanjanju velikih parazita koji ne mogu biti fagocitirani Subpopulacije limfocita T H 1 stanice obrana od unutarstaničnih nametnika T H 2 stanice uklanjanje crijevnih parazita Citotoksični limfociti CD8 + uklanjanje unutarstaničnih parazita 24

7 Obrana protiv parazita Granulomatozno i vezivno tkivo: stvara se oko nametnika koji nisu uklonjeni ograđuje nametnika onemogućuje njegovo širenje po organizmu tkivo može ozbiljno poremetiti funkciju organa u kojem se nalazi Turbellaria virnjaci Pseudoceros ferrugineus Trematoda metilji Platyhelminthes plošnjaci (4) Cestoidea trakavice Fasciola hepatica Monogenea jednorodni metilji Dermophtirius sp. Pseudobiceros bedfordi Pseudobiceros gratus Taenia solium, svinjska trakavica Taenia saginata goveđa trakavica Echinococcus granulosus, pseća trakavica Oblici imunosne aktivnosti Imunosna nereaktivnost imunoreakcija imunost imunološka preosjetljivost (alergija) rana preosjetljivost posredovana protutijelima anafilaktička (I oblik) citotoksična (II oblik) preosjetljivost uzrokovana imunokompleksima (III oblik) kasna (odgođena) preosjetljivost posredovana stanicama (IV oblik) autoimunost organospecifična organonespecifična imunosna nereaktivnost specifična imunotolerancija imunosupresija specifična nespecifična imunodeficijencije primarne sekundarne 27 28

8 Imunosna nereaktivnost izostanak ili slaba izraženost imunoreakcije nakon dodira s antigenom Specifična imunotolerancija specifična nereaktivnost prema određenom antigenu, dok je reaktivnost prema ostalim antigenima očuvana tolerancija prema vlastitim antigenima neonatalna malodozna velikodozna mehanizam: selektivna delecija ili inaktivacija specifičnog klona limfocita, a zatim supresijsko djelovanje limfocita T ili proizvodnja blokadnih čimbenika Imunosna nereaktivnost Imunosupresija postupci i stanja potiskivanja (suzbijanja) imunoreakcije specifična namjerno izazvana tolerancija antigenom ili protutijelima nespecifična potiskivanje imunoreakcije protiv svih antigena, a postiže se: fizičkim sredstvima (ionizirajuće zračenje) kemijskim tvarima (citostatici) biološkim sredstvima (antilimfocitni serum) kirurškim postupcima (splenektomija) blokiranjem retikuloendotelnog sustava Imunosna nereaktivnost Imunodeficijencije bolesti koje oštećuju imunosni sustav i koje su popraćene slabijom imunoreakcijom ili njezinim potpunim izostankom nakon antigenske stimulacije primarne genski uzrokovane ili prirođene bolesti nedostatak limfocita T nedostatak limfocita B nedostatak limfocita T i B nedostatak fagocitnog sustava nedostatak komplementa sekundarne stečene tijekom života kao popratne pojave nekih stanja bolesti (AIDS) ili načina liječenja Imunotolerancija nereaktivnost na određeni antigen, posebice na vlastite antigene nereaktivnosti doprinosi niz mehanizama centralna imunotolerancija periferna imunotolerancija imunotoleranciju se može prevladati 31 32

9 Mehanizmi imunotolerancije Tolerancija prema vlastitim antigenima: perinatalno u primarnim limfnim organima (tzv. centralna ili perinatalna tolerancija), u vrijeme kada je imunosni sustav nezreo na taj način nastaje tolerancija samo prema antigenima koji su predočeni na timusnim epitelnim i predočnim stnaicama u dovoljnoj koncentraciji Mnogi izvantimusni antigeni (osobito unutarstanični) slabo se opuštaju u cirkulaciju i ne bivaju predočeni u timusu u dovoljnoj koncentraciji, pa se na njih stvara tolerancija u perifernim limfnim organima, u reakciji sa zrelim imunokompetentnim stanicama (tzv. periferna tolerancija) na taj način nastaje i umjetno izazvana tolerancija prema tuđim antigenima u odrasloj dobi Centralna imunotolerancija tijekom sazrijevanja B i T limfocita, isključuju se klonovi stanica koje su izrazito reaktivni s vlastitim antigenima antigeni su predočeni u koštanoj srži i timusu Centralna imunotolerancija Iščeznuće (delecija) klona glavni mehanizam kojim nastaje centralna odnosno perinatalna tolerancija iščezavanje specifičnih klonova protiv vlastitih antigena klon fizički nestaje u reakciji s antigenom stanice koje proizvode protutijela ili imaju TcR koji imaju visoki afinitet za vlastite antigene potaknute su na apoptozu Sazrijevanje T limfocita 35 36

10 Periferna imunotolerancija Aktivna imunost u limfnim čvorovima i slezeni anergija klonova = specifični klon ne nestaje, ali postaje neaktivan stupanj anergije (nereaktivnosti) može biti različit: od potpune i trajne inaktivacije klona do gubitka samo nekih aktivnosti klona (izostanka proliferacije, izostanka lučenja IL- 2, smanjene izraženosti specifičnih receptora) nastaje na periferiji najvjerojatnije zbog nedostatka kostimulacijskog signala na perifernim (neimunosnim) stanicama 37 Čimbenici koji utječu na imunotoleranciju zrelost imunosnog sustava svojstva antigena doza antigena put unosa antigena Uspostavljanje imunotolerancije zrelost imunosnog sustava Imunotoleranciju je najlakše uspostaviti u prenatalnom ili perinatalnom razdoblju (u čovjeka u prvoj polovini trudnoće), dok je imunosni sustav još nezreo. Na taj način se uspostavlja tolerancija prema vlastitim antigenima, a uštrcavanjem tuđih antigena životinjama u tom razdoblju može se uspostaviti trajna specifična nereaktivnost prema tim antigenima. Toleranciju je znatno teže uspostaviti u odrasloj dobi, kad je imunosni sustav zreo. Toleranciju je u odrasloj dobi lakše izazvati kada je imunosni sustav istodobno suprimiran. 39 Toleranciju prema presadcima alogeničnih tkiva ili malignih tumora može se eksperimentalno izazvati indukcijom tzv. imunosnog pospješenja odnosno facilitacije, pri čemu se primaoca preimunizira velikom dozom homogenata ili ekstrakta davaočeva tkiva. U serumu takvih primaoca nalaze se protutijela kojima se stanje pospješenja odnosno facilitacije može prenijeti u novog primaoca.

11 Uspostavljanje imunotolerancije Uspostavljanje imunotolerancije svojstva antigena Tolerogeničnost nekog antigena općenito je to veća što je imunogeničnost toga antigena manja, što je jednostavnija njegova građa, što mu je manja molekularna masa i što je manja vitalnost tkiva prilikom indukcije. Na tolerogeničnost utječu i kemijske značajke antigena. doza antigena Tolerancija na topljive antigene može se uspostaviti opetovanim uštrcavanjem malih doza antigena ili jednokratnim uštrcavanjem vrlo visoke doze antigena put unosa antigena Nastanku tolerancije pogoduje intravenski i peroralni put unosa antigena, a nastanku pozitivnog imunosnog odgovora unos antigena intrakutanim ili subkutanim putom. Mehanizmi kojima može nastati tolerancija 1. iščezavanje (delecija) klonova 2. anergija klonova 3. imunološko zanemarivanje 4. imunodevijacija u imunoprivilegiranim mjestima 5. preusmjerivanje imunoreakcije 6. djelovanje facilitacijskih protutijela i blokadnih čimbenika 7. djelovanje supresijskih mehanizama Imunološko zanemarivanje pojava da u organizmu postoje autoreaktivni klonovi, ali ne dolazi do autoimunosne reakcije nastaje zbog toga što: u perifernim organima pojedini organospecifični antigeni ne vežu se za limfocitne receptore dovoljnim intenzitetom mirujući (naivni) limfociti slabo recirkuliraju kroz nelimfna tkiva (slabo prolaze kroz endotel žila tih tkiva) relevantni antigeni su odijeljeni (sekvestrirani) pa time nedostupni limfocitima posebice izraženo kod pomagačkih (T H ) limfocita, jer većina neimunosnih stanica perifernih tkiva ne izražava antigene MHC-II pa limfociti T H ne mogu prepoznati potencijalne (auto)antigene

12 Imunoprivilegirana mjesta imunotolerancija je pojačana u određenim organima = imunoprivilegiranim mjestima nastaje zbog toga, što posebnim mehanizmima dolazi do smrti ili inaktivacije limfocita koji bi mogli djelovati proupalno i oštetiti vitalne strukture u privilegiranim mjestima očna komorica, mozak, testisi, trudna maternica Trudnoća reverzibilna i selektivna tolerancija 46 Fetus je semialogeničan nosi polovinu očevih transplantacijskih antigena majka ga tolerira devet mjeseci majka shvaća fetus kao strano tijelo i stvara protutijela na očeve MHC antigene presatci tog istog fetusa ili tkiva oca na nekom drugom mjestu majčinog organizma bili bi brzo odbačeni Fetus je zaštićen fizičkom preprekom sistemskim faktorima lokalnom imunosupresijom Fetalna tkiva: imaju sve transplantacijske antigene kao i odrasli organizmi između fetusa i majke = posteljična prepreka sprječava izravni imunološki napad majke na fetus Stanice fetalnog trofoblasta glavni dio prepreke i najizloženijije su majčinom imunosnom sustavu ne izražavaju klasične antigene MHC-I i MHC- II zaštićene od specifične stanične imunoreakcije majke 47

13 Stanice ekstraviloznog trofoblasta: sadržavaju neklasični antigen MHC-I molekulu HLA-G koči ubijanje stanica trofoblasta majčinim NK stanicama gotovo sve stanice trofoblasta posjeduju dvije vrste antigena na koje majka može imunoreagirati: 1. Antigene specifične za trofoblaste (TA) 2. Trofoblasne antigene koji križno reagiraju s limfocitima (TLX) Žene s učestalim spontanim pobačajima imaju u serumu visok titar citotoksičnih protutijela, usmjerenih na trofoblastne antigene TA i TLX Majka je senzibilizirana na antigene fetusa (tj. nije sistemno tolerantna) to pokazuje pojava anti-hla (skupina I) protutijela na očeve antigene u cirkulaciji majke ta protutijela ne oštećuju trofoblast ni fetus, jer se na površini trofoblasta nalaze čimbenici koji priječe djelovanje komplemenata Drugi čimbenici sprječavanja reakcije majke, tj. zaštite fetusa: fetoplacentarna prepreka priječi prjelazak limfocita majke u djetetovu cirkulaciju 50 niz sistemnih i lokalnih zaštitnih mehanizama važniji oni koji djeluju lokalno Čestit Božići new_year4.exe 52

14 53 Imunotolerancija s kliničkog stanovišta alergija odbacivanje transplantata trudnoća odgovor na tumor kronične infekcije autoimune bolesti Međusobne reakcije imunosnih stanica reakcija limfocita T i APC adhezijske molekule selektini (leukociti L selektin, endotel P selektin, E selektin) vaskularni adresini (GlyCAM, endotel) integrini (APC, limfociti, trombociti) imunoglobulinska superporodica (međustanične adhezijske molekule; intercellular adhesion molecule; ICAM) drugi signal kostimulacijski signal (CD28 na T limfocitu i B7 na predočnoj stanici) koreceptorske molekule CD4 i CD8 prijenos signala u stanicu citokini Prijenos signala u stanicu Interakcija TCR i CD8 molekula sa molekulom MHC klase I i antigeskim peptidom unutarstanični dijelovi receptorskog kompleksa CD3 molekule i antigenskog receptora TCR-αβ sadrže tzv. ITAM sljedove (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif) koji, međudjelovanjem sa staničnim tirozin-kinazama, posreduju prijenos signala u stanicu na aktivaciju T limfocita djeluje i njegova molekula CD45 koja se proteže kroz cijelu membranu njezin unutarstanični dio djeluje kao tirozinfosfataza, koja omogućuje aktivaciju tirozin-kinaza na receptorskom kompleksu i daljnji prijenos signala u stanicu T limfocit membra na membra Ciljna stanica na CD8 stabilizira strukturu vežući se za konstantni dio molekule MHC klase I koja predočava antigen edočen u sklopu MHC molekula klase I.

15 Interakcija TCR i CD4 molekula sa molekulom MHC klase II i antigeskim peptidom membra na membra na Shematski prikaz interakcije između TCR i antigenskog peptida predočenog u sklopu MHC molekule klase II. CD4 stabilizira ovu strukturu vežući se za konstantni dio molekule MHC klase II. Prijenos signala u stanicu unutarstanični dijelovi receptorskog kompleksa CD3 molekule i antigenskog receptora TCR-αβ sadrže tzv. ITAM sljedove (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif) koji, međudjelovanjem sa staničnim tirozin-kinazama, posreduju prijenos signala u stanicu na aktivaciju T limfocita djeluje i njegova molekula CD45 koja se proteže kroz cijelu membranu njezin unutarstanični dio djeluje kao tirozin-fosfataza, koja omogućuje aktivaciju tirozin-kinaza na receptorskom kompleksu i daljnji prijenos signala u stanicu ITAM slijedovi Prijenos signala u T limfocit Prijenos signala u B limfocit

16 Signal 1 bez signala 2 vodi prema anergiji ili smrti Activated or effector T cell 1+2 activates T cell No signal 2 61 Anergija uklanjanje dendritičnih stanica iz presadaka može, zbog gubitka kostimulacijskog signala, znatno pospješiti prihvaćanje presatka Tolerancija se može izgubiti (i nastati autoimunosna bolest) prilikom infekcija, jer mikroorganizmi i stvoreni citokini mogu potaknuti istraživanje kostimulacijskih molekula i na profesionalnim predočnim stanicama Supresijski mehanizmi i supresijske stanice Dugo se mislilo da supresijsku aktivnost posreduju imunološki specifični supresijski limfociti T, fenotipa CD8 +, no to je mišljenje danas uglavnom napušteno. Pojave specifične aktivne supresije nastoji se protumačiti djelovanjem već poznatih imunosnih mehanizama. Dio tih pojava može se protumačiti preusmjeravanjem imunoreakcije (od aktivacije stanica T H 1 na aktivaciju stanica T H 2), lučenjem supresijskih citokina (IL-4, IL-10 i TGF-ß - T H 3 stanice), stvaranjem antiidiotipskih protutijela i drugo. 64

17 Oralna tolerancija We normally do not make immune responses to foods despite the fact that foods are loaded with foreign antigens 65 Putovi ulaska antigena kroz lumen Imunost probavnog trakta 1 antigen 2 3 Y Y Y Y PRIROĐENA imunost inducira SPECIFIČNU T H 1 stanični APS MHC II TCR CD4 T H 0 T reg T H 3 TGF-β, IL-4 i IL-10 regulatorni M stanica Makrofag, dendritička stanica Dendritička stanica FcRn MHC II Oralna (mukozna) tolerancija/aktivacija? Y YY B7-1/2 APC TLR Prerađeni antigen fagocitoza strani antigen kostimulacijske molekule Mikrookolina (citokini, proteini, endotoksini...) T H 2 humoralni (protutijela)

18 Tolerancija potaknuta supresijom The ability to discriminate between commensal and pathogenic bacteria may be due to continues exposure. Normal hosts, which are resistant to inflammation, have controlled uptake of luminal antigens across the specialize epithelium of Peyer s patches and colonic lymphoid aggregates to initiate a regulated immune response. These antigens cross microfold (M) cells in the dome epithelium without being processed and then are degraded and presented by dendritic cells within the Peyer s patch. Naïve (TH 0 ) T helper cells differentiate into regulatory T cell subsets, TH 3 and T regulatory 1 (TR 1 ), which preferentially secrete TGFβ and IL- 10, respectively. These immunosuppressive cytokines inhibit the activity of macrophages and T helper 1 cells, thereby preventing secretion of IL-12 and interferon γ (IFNγ). This regulatory tone of the intestine prevents induction of pathologic immune responses to 69 commensal antigens. bacteria and dietary 70 NEGATIVNI (ORALNA TOLERANCIJA) IMUNOSNE STANICE nezrele ili djevičanske stanice PRIKAZIVANJE Ag NEIMUNOSNE STANICE epitelne stanice (enterociti) NEMAJU KOSTIMULACIJSKE MOLEKULE ANERGIJA/APOPTOZA = DOKIDANJE KLONOVA Ag-SPECIFIČNIH STANICA Redoslijed zbivanja tijekom ekstravazacije leukocita (IL-8) Tethering of the leukocyte on the surface of activated endothelium occurs through interactions between L-selectin and its endothelial ligands, as well as P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 (PSGL1)-mediated contacts. Tethering and rolling precede firm adhesion, which is mediated by interaction of leukocyte integrins very late antigen 4 (VLA4, 41 ) and leukocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA1, L2 ) with endothelial vascular cell-adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), respectively. The actin cytoskeleton has a dual regulatory role during this step. Integrinmediated cell adhesion is enhanced by interaction of G-protein-coupled receptors for example, CXCchemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), the receptor for stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF1), also known as CXC-chemokine ligand 12) with chemokines immobilized on glycosoaminoglycans (GAGs) in a mechanism of receptor cross talk. During this step, leukocyte polarization occurs, with clustering of adhesion molecules in the cellular uropod. Finally, leukocytes extravasate and enter the target organ a process that involves integrins as well as junctional adhesion molecules (JAMs) expressed by endothelial cells. For simplicity, not all of the domains of ICAM1, ICAM3 and VCAM1 are represented; they contain five, five and seven immunoglobulin domains, respectively. MTOC, microtubuleorganizing 71 centre.

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