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1 OpenStax-CNX module: m Derived copy of Bone * Shannon McDermott Based on Bone by OpenStax This work is produced by OpenStax-CNX and licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 By the end of this section, you will be able to: Abstract Classify the dierent types of bones in the skeleton Explain the role of the dierent cell types in bone Explain how bone forms during development Bone, or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains specialized cells and a matrix of mineral salts and collagen bers. The mineral salts primarily include hydroxyapatite, a mineral formed from calcium phosphate. Calcication is the process of deposition of mineral salts on the collagen ber matrix that crystallizes and hardens the tissue. The process of calcication only occurs in the presence of collagen bers a Bone Tissue Bones are considered organs because they contain various types of tissue, such as blood, connective tissue, nerves, and bone tissue. Osteocytes, the living cells of bone tissue, form the mineral matrix of bones. There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. 1.1 Compact Bone Tissue Compact bone forms the hard external layer of all bones and surrounds the medullary cavity, or bone marrow. It provides protection and strength to bones. Compact bone tissue consists of units called osteons or Haversian systems. Osteons are cylindrical structures that contain a mineral matrix and living bone cells connected by canaliculi, which transport nutrients between cells. They are aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone. Each osteon consists of lamellae, which are layers of compact matrix that surround a central canal. The central canal contains the bone's blood vessels and nerve bers (Figure 1). Osteons in compact bone tissue are aligned in the same direction along lines of stress and help the bone resist bending or fracturing. Therefore, compact bone tissue is prominent in areas of bone at which stresses are applied in only a few directions. * Version 1.4: Jun 5, :12 pm
2 OpenStax-CNX module: m : Figure 1: Compact bone tissue consists of osteons that are aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone, and the Haversian canal that contains the bone's blood vessels and nerve bers. The inner layer of bones consists of spongy bone tissue. The small dark ovals in the osteon represent the living osteocytes. (credit: modication of work by NCI, NIH) Which of the following statements about bone tissue is false? a.compact bone tissue is made of cylindrical osteons that are aligned such that they travel the length of the bone. b.haversian canals contain blood vessels only. c.haversian canals contain blood vessels and nerve bers. d.spongy tissue is found on the interior of the bone, and compact bone tissue is found on the exterior Spongy Bone Tissue Whereas compact bone tissue forms the outer layer of all bones, spongy bone forms the inner layer of all bones. Spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons that constitute compact bone tissue. Instead, it consists of trabeculae, which are lamellae that are arranged as rods or plates. Red bone marrow is found between the trabuculae. Blood vessels within this tissue deliver nutrients to osteocytes and remove waste. The red bone marrow of the femur and the interior of other large bones, such as the ileum, forms blood cells.
3 OpenStax-CNX module: m : View micrographs 1 of musculoskeletal tissues as you review the anatomy b Cell Types in Bones Bone consists of four types of cells: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, and osteoprogenitor cells (Figure 2). Osteoblasts are bone cells that are responsible for bone formation. Osteoblasts synthesize and secrete the organic part and inorganic part of the extracellular matrix of bone tissue, and collagen bers. Osteoblasts become trapped in these secretions and dierentiate into less active osteocytes. Osteoclasts are large bone cells with up to 50 nuclei. They remove bone structure by releasing lysosomal enzymes and acids that dissolve the bony matrix. These minerals, released from bones into the blood, help regulate calcium concentrations in body uids. Bone may also be resorbed for remodeling, if the applied stresses have changed. Osteocytes are mature bone cells and are the main cells in bony connective tissue; these cells cannot divide. Osteocytes maintain normal bone structure by recycling the mineral salts in the bony matrix. 1
4 OpenStax-CNX module: m Figure 2: (a) Compact bone is a dense matrix on the outer surface of bone. Spongy bone, inside the compact bone, is porous with web-like trabeculae. (b) Compact bone is organized into rings called osteons. Blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels are found in the central Haversian canal. Rings of lamellae surround the Haversian canal. Between the lamellae are cavities called lacunae. Canaliculi are microchannels connecting the lacunae together. (c) Osteoblasts surround the exterior of the bone. Osteoclasts bore tunnels into the bone and osteocytes are found in the lacunae.
5 OpenStax-CNX module: m c Development of Bone Ossication, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Ossication is distinct from the process of calcication; whereas calcication takes place during the ossication of bones, it can also occur in other tissues. Ossication begins approximately six weeks after fertilization in an embryo. Before this time, the embryonic skeleton consists entirely of brous membranes and hyaline cartilage. The development of bone from brous membranes is called intramembranous ossication; development from hyaline cartilage is called endochondral ossication. Bone growth continues until approximately age 25. Bones can grow in thickness throughout life, but after age 25, ossication functions primarily in bone remodeling and repair. 4 Section Summary Bone, or osseous tissue, is connective tissue that includes specialized cells, mineral salts, and collagen bers. The human skeleton can be divided into long bones, short bones, at bones, and irregular bones. Compact bone tissue is composed of osteons and forms the external layer of all bones. Spongy bone tissue is composed of trabeculae and forms the inner part of all bones. Four types of cells compose bony tissue: osteocytes, osteoclasts, osteoprogenitor cells, and osteoblasts. Ossication is the process of bone formation by osteoblasts. Intramembranous ossication is the process of bone development from brous membranes. Endochondral ossication is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. Long bones lengthen as chondrocytes divide and secrete hyaline cartilage. Osteoblasts replace cartilage with bone. Appositional growth is the increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bone tissue at the surface of bones. Bone remodeling involves the processes of bone deposition by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. Bone repair occurs in four stages and can take several months. Glossary Denition 2: bone (also, osseous tissue) connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton Denition 2: bone remodeling replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue Denition 2: calcication process of deposition of mineral salts in the collagen ber matrix that crystallizes and hardens the tissue Denition 2: canaliculi microscopic channels that transport nutrients between osteocytes in bone tissue Denition 2: central canal contains the bone's blood vessels and nerve bers Denition 2: compact bone forms the hard external layer of all bones Denition 2: lamella layer of compact tissue that surrounds a central canal called the Haversian canal Denition 2: osteoblast bone cell responsible for bone formation Denition 2: osteoclast large bone cells with up to 50 nuclei, responsible for bone remodeling Denition 2: osteocyte mature bone cells and the main cell in bone tissue
6 OpenStax-CNX module: m Denition 2: osseous tissue connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton Denition 2: ossication (also, osteogenesis) process of bone formation by osteoblasts Denition 2: osteon cylindrical structure aligned parallel to the long axis of the bone Denition 2: resorption process by which osteoclasts release minerals stored in bones Denition 2: spongy bone tissue forms the inner layer of all bones Denition 2: trabeculae lamellae that are arranged as rods or plates
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