Contents. Acknowledgments. Chapter 1 Physical and Morphological Properties of Cereal Grains 1. (Method 55-20) 7. xix. xxiii

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1 Cereal Grains Laboratory Reference and Procedures Manual Sergio O. Serna-Saldivar Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico CRC Press is CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

2 Contents Preface Acknowledgments Author List of Equivalences xix xxi xxiii xxv Chapter 1 Physical and Morphological Properties of Cereal Grains Introduction Determination of Physical Properties of Cereal Grains Test Weight Test Weight Procedure I True Density Determination of True Density with the Pycnometer Determination of Density with Alcohol Displacement Flotation Index Determination of Floating Kernels Grain Hardness Subjective Determination of the Ratio of Soft to Hard Endosperm or Endosperm Texture Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the TADD Mill Procedure to Determine Grain Hardness Using the Stenvert Test Breakage Tests Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Stein Breakage Tester (Method 55-20) Determination of Breakage Susceptibility with the Wisconsin Breakage Tester Stress Cracks and Fissures Determination of Stress Cracks or Fissures Thousand Kernel Weight Determination of Kernel Weight Foreign or Extraneous Material Determination of Dockage or Foreign Material Test for Maize Breakage and Damaged Kernels Damaged Kernels Determination of Damaged Kernels Tetrazolium Test for Germ Viability (Dead Germ) Research Suggestions 1' Test Weight True Density Flotation Index Endosperm Texture Breakage Susceptibility Stress Cracks Kernel Weight Foreign Material and Dockage Grain Damage Research Questions Test Weight True Density Flotation Index Endosperm Texture Breakage Susceptibility Stress Cracks 14

3 vjjj Contents Grain Weight Dockage and Foreign Material Damaged Kernels Determination of Grade and Class Evaluation of Grade Determination of Maize Grade Determination of Wheat Grade Determination of Grade of Rough, Brown, or White Polished Rice Determination of Barley Grade Determination of Sorghum Grade Determination of Oats Grade Determination of Rye Grade Evaluation of Class Determination of Maize Class Determination of Wheat Class Determination of Rice Class Determination of Barley Class Determination of Sorghum Class Determination of Oats Class Determination of Rye Class Research Suggestions Research Questions Macromorphology and Micromorphology of Cereal Grains Observation of Inflorescences Observation of Immature Inflorescences Observation of Mature Inflorescences Observation and Identification of the Anatomical Parts of Cereal Kernels Determination of Relative Amounts of Husks or Glumes, Pericarp, Endosperm, and Germ Tissues Research Suggestions Research Questions 22 References 23 Chapter 2 Determination of Chemical and Nutritional Properties of Cereal Grains and Their Products Introduction Proximate Composition Moisture Determination of Moisture (Gravimetric Method A) Minerals or Ash Analysis of Ash or Minerals (Method 08-12) Protein Crude Protein Analysis (Kjeldahl Method) Fat Analysis of Crude Fat Crude Fiber Analysis of Crude Fiber Nitrogen-Free Extract 30 2,2.6.1 Calculation of Nitrogen-Free Extract Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Moisture Analysis Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Mineral Analysis Wet and Dry Ashing Wet-Ashing Procedure 33

4 Contents x Dry-Ashing Procedure Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy Analysis of Minerals with AAS ICP Spectroscopy Analysis of Minerals with ICP Spectroscopy Phosphorus Analysis Analysis of Phosphorus with the Blue Molybdate Colorimetric Analysis Sodium Chloride Analysis Mohr Titration Method Volhard Titration Method Analysis of Salt Content with the Dicromat Analyzer Analysis of Chloride (Salt) with the Quantab Strip Test Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Nitrogenous Compound Analysis Determination of Protein Fractions Protein Fractionation Scheme Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen Determination of Free Amino Nitrogen (Ninhydrin Reaction) Determination of Amino Acid Profile Acid Hydrolysis Procedure for Determination ofamino Acids Determination of Tryptophan with a Colorirnetric Procedure Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Fats and Oils Analysis Analysis of FFAs Peroxide Value and Active Oxygen Determination of Peroxide Value (Cd 8-53 Method) Active Oxygen Stability Method (Procedure Cd 12-57) Saponification Value Iodine Value Smoke Point Solid Fat Index Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Fiber Analysis Analysis of Detergent Fiber Dietary Fiber Determination of Total Dietary Fiber Determination of Insoluble and Soluble Dietary Fiber Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Nonfibrous Carbohydrate Analysis Determination of Total Starch Determination of Total Starch with the Anthrone Assay Determination of Total Starch with the Enzymatic Method (Method 76-11) Determination of Enzyme-Susceptible Starch Determination of Damaged Starch (Method 76-30A) Determination of Amylose Determination of Amylose and Amylopectin Determination of Resistant Starch Determination of Resistant Starch Determination of Total Sugars Determination of Total Sugars (Phenol Method) Determination of Total Reducing Sugars Determination of Reducing Sugars with the Somogyi-Nelson Procedure Determination of Reducing Sugars with the DNS Procedure 66

5 x Contents Determination of Glucose Research Suggestions Research Questions Vitamin Analysis Analysis of Liposoluble Vitamins Analysis of Vitamin A and Carotenes (Method 86-05) Analysis of B-Complex Vitamins VI Analysis of Thiamine (Fluorometric Method ) Analysis of Riboflavin (Fluorometric Method ) Analysis of Niacin (Method ) Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for ph and Acidity Analysis Analysis of Acidity Determination of ph Titratable Acidity Research Suggestions Research Questions Methods for Nutraceutical Compounds Analysis Research Suggestions Research Questions Instrumental Analysis Chromatography Thin-Layer Chromatography High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Gas-Liquid Chromatography Near-Infrared Analysis Analysis via NIRA Water Activity Determination of Water Activity (AJ Immunoassays Research Suggestions Research Questions Nutrition Labeling Research Suggestions Research Questions 85 References 87 Chapter 3 Determination of Color, Texture, and Sensory Properties of Cereal Grain Products Introduction Color Determination of Color Hunter Lab Color Meier Pekar Color (Method ) Aglron Color Meter Wheat Flour Color Determination (Method 14-30) Research Suggestions Research Questions Texture Rheological Properties Rheological Properties of Wheat Dough Rheological Properties of Masa Rheological Properties of Tortillas, Pasta, and Breakfast Cereals Viscosity Measurement Determination of Viscosity with a Viscometer Research Suggestions 97

6 Contents xl Research Questions Sensory Testing Discriminatory Sensory Evaluation Tests Preparation and Coding Triangle Test Duo-Trio Test Affective Sensory Evaluation Tests Preference Paired Tests Rank Preference Test Affective or Hedonic Tests Research Suggestions Research Questions 105 References 105 Chapter 4 Storage of Cereal Grains and Detrimental Effects of Pests Introduction Effects of Environment and Grain Moisture Content on Deterioration Equilibrium Grain Moisture at Different RHs Determination of a Cereal Isotherm Curve Effect of Temperature and Grain Moisture Content on Grain Stability Research Suggestions Research Questions Extrinsic Deterioration of Cereal Grains: Insects, Molds, and Rodents Ill Morphology and Identification of Stored-Grain Insects Identification of Stored Grain Insects Filth, Insect Fragments, and Other Extraneous Materials Determination of Light Filth in Flours (Method ) Determination of Insect Fragments in Flours Determination of Insect Eggs in Flour (Method ) Molds and Mycotoxins Presumptive Test for Anatoxins (Method 45-15) Determination of Aflatoxins Using the AflaTest Rodents Detection of Rodent Feces by Decantalion (Method 28-50) Detection of Urine on Grains (Method ) Research Suggestions Research Questions 122 References 123 Chapter 5 Dry-Milling Processes and Quality of Dry-Milled Products Introduction Laboratory Dry-Milling Processes Dry-Milling of Maize Production of Refined Grits and Flour Degerming-Tempering Milling of Maize Dry-Milling of Wheat Production of Refined Flours and Semolina Dry-Milling of Wheal for the Production of Refined Flours (Method 26-10) Dry-Milling of Rice Production of Regular and Parboiled White Rice Milling of Rice Dry-Milling of Parboiled Rice Dry-Milling of Oats Production of Groats, Meals, and Flours Dry-Milling of Oats Dry-Milling of Sorghum and Millets Production of Decorticated Kernels, Grits, and Flours Production of Decorticated Kernels and Refined Flours from Sorghum or Millets Production of Refined Grits and Flours from Decorticated Sorghum or Millets 135

7 xjj Contents Research Suggestions ' Research Questions ' Assessment of Quality of Dry-Milled Fractions Quality of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions Determination of Particle Size Distribution of Dry-Milled Maize Fractions Quality of White Rice May-Gruenwald Dyeing Procedure Analysis of Amylose in White Polished Rice Elongation Factor of Cooked Rice Simple Tests for Quality of Wheat Flour and Dough Properties Pelshenke Test Sedimentation or Zeleny Test Alkaline Water Retention Test (Method 56-10) Gluten Content Glutomatic Assay Wheat Dough Rheological Properties Determination of Dough Properties with the Farinograph (Method 54-21) Determination of Dough Properties with the Extensograph (Method 54-10) Determination of Dough Properties with the Mixograph (Method 54-40) Determination of Dough Properties with the Alveograph (Method 54-30) Determination of Dough Properties with Mixolab (Method ) Quality of Groats Quality of Decorticated Sorghum and Refined Meals and Flours Research Suggestions Research Questions 155 References 156 Chapter 6 Wet-Milling Processes and Starch Properties and Characteristics Introduction Wet-Milling Wet-Milling Processes 159 of Maize Laboratory Wet-Milling Process of Maize Wet-Milling of Rice Laboratory Wet-Milling Procedure of White Polished Rice Wet-Milling of Wheat and Vital Gluten Production Wet-Milling Laboratory Procedure for Wheat Flour Research Suggestions Research Questions Morphologhy and Dyeing of Starches Starch Granule Morphology and Dyeing Techniques Iodine Dye Test Congo Red Dye Test Starch Microscopy Birefringence End-Point Temperature Scanning Electron Microscopy Research Suggestions Research Questions Evaluation of the Functional Properties of Starches Viscoamylography Amylograph Properties of Starches and Starch-Rich Products Rapid Viscoamylograph Properties of Flour and Starches Differential Scanning Calorimetry (Thermal Properties) Determination of Starch Damage and Diastatic Activity Determination of Diastatic Activity of Wheat Flour with the Amylograph (Method 22-10) 173

8 Contents xtii Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Rapid Viscoamylograph (Stirring Number, Method 22-08) Determination of Diastatic Activity with the Pressurometer (Method 22-11) Falling Number Method (Method 56-81B) Determination of Optimum Mall Supplemented to Wheat Flour for Baking Purposes with the Amylograph Research Suggestions Research Questions 176 References 177 Chapter 7 Production of Maize Tortillas and Quality of Lime-Cooked Products Introduction Quality Tests for Nixtamalized Products Nixtamal Cooking and Quality Ease of Pericarp Removal Test Mini Lime-Cooking Trial: Optimum Cooking and Dry Matter Loss Masa Quality Color Determination of ph Particle Size Distribution of Hydrated Masa Determination of Masa Stickiness Determination of Masa Consistency with the Penetrometer Masa Texture with the Instron Compression Tension Test TPA of Masa Tortilla Production and Quality Production of Tortillas Tortilla Texture Dry Masa Flour Production Production of Dry Masa Flours Production of Tortillas from Dry Masa Flour Determination of Water Absorption and Solubility Indexes Consistency of Dry Masa Flour Slurries Determination of Dry Masa Flour Consistency Research Suggestions Research Questions 195 References 196 Chapter 8 Functionality Tests for Yeast and Chemical Leavening Agents Introduction Functionality Tests for Yeast Activity Fermentograph Determination of Yeast Activity with the Fermentograph Maturograph and Oven Rise Recorder Determination of Dough Properties and Bread Volume with the Maturograph and Oven Rise Recorder Rheofermentometer Determination of Fermenting Dough Gas Production and Retention with the Rheofermentometer Gasograph Determination of Yeast Activity with the Gasograph Pressurometer Determination of Yeast Activity with the Pressurometer Research Suggestions Research Questions 205

9 xjv Contents 8.3 Functionality Tests for Chemical Leavening Agents Neutralization Value Determination of Neutralization Values of Monocalcium Phosphate, Monohydrate or Anhydrous Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate Determination of Neutralization Values of Sodium Aluminum Phosphate Research Suggestions Research Questions 207 References 208 Chapter 9 Production of Yeast-Leavened Bakery Products Introduction Production and Quality of Yeast Fermented Breads Chinese Steamed Bread Production of Chinese Steamed Bread Baguettes or French Breads Production of French Bread or Baguettes Arabic Flat Breads Production of Pita Bread Production of Lavash Production of Yufka Production of Pide Bagels Production of Bagels Pretzel Bread Production of Soft Pretzels Pan Bread Production of Pup Loaves with the Official Microbaking Straight Dough Procedure Production of Pan Bread from Sponge Doughs Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads Production of Whole, Variety, and Multigrain Breads Sour Breads Production of Sour Breads Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns Production of Hamburger and Hot Dog Buns Cheese Bread Rolls Production of Cheese Bread Rolls Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Sweet Pastries Croissants Production of Croissants Danish Pastries Production of Danish Pastries Production of Other Pastries Configurations Production of Danish Icing Production of Pastry Cream Cinnamon Rolls Production of Glazed Cinnamon Rolls Sweet Concha Bread Production of Sweet Conchas Yeast-Leavened Donuts Production of Yeast-Leavened Fried Donuts Research Suggestions 244

10 Contents xv Research Questions 245 References 245 Chapter 10 Production of Chemical-Leavened Products: Crackers, Cookies, Cakes and Related Products, Donuts, and Wheat Flour Tortillas Introduction Crackers Production of Crackers Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Cookies Spread Factor Spread Factor Assay (AACC 2000, Method 10-50D) Rotary-Molded Cookies Production of Rotary-Molded Cookies Sheeted and Formed Cookies Production of Sheeted and Formed Cookies Wire-Cut Cookies Production of Wire-Cut Cookies Other Sweet Cookies Production of Chocolate-Chip Cookies Production of Oat Cookies Oat-Chocolate Bars Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Biscuits, Muffins, Chemical-Leavened Donuts, and Cakes Biscuits Production of Biscuits and Cornbread Muffins Production of Muffins Production of Chemical-Leavened or Coffee Donuts Production of Chemical-Leavened Donuts Production of Cakes and Related Products Production of Shortened Low-Ratio Cakes Production of Shortened High-Ratio Cakes Production of Angel Cakes Cake Frostings Production of Different Types of Frostings Production of Waffles, Pancakes, and Crepes Production of Waffles Production of Pancakes Production of Crepes Pies Production of Pies Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Wheat Flour Tortillas Wheat Flour Tortillas Production of Hot-Press Tortillas Laminated and Formed Tortillas Sweet Flour Tortillas Production of Sweet Tortilla Pancakes Research Suggestions Research Questions 284 References 285

11 xvj Contents Chapter 11 Production of Pasta Products and Oriental Noodles Introduction Pasta Products from Durum Semolina Sheeted and Cut Pasta Production of Pasta by Sheeting and Cutting Extruded Pasta Production of Cold-Extruded Pasta Cooking Quality of Pasta Determination of Pasta Texture with the Texture Analyzer Research Suggestions Research Questions Oriental Noodles Oriental Noodles from Wheat Flour Production of Wheat-Based Oriental Noodles Production of Rice Noodles Production of Rice-Based Noodles Research Suggestions Research Questions 296 References 296 Chapter 12 Production of Breakfast Cereals and Snack Foods Introduction Production of Breakfast Cereals Corn Flakes Production of Corn Flakes Rolled or Flaked Oats Production of Rolled Oats Oven-Puffed Rice Production of Oven-Puffed Rice Extruded Corn Puffs Production of Extruded Corn Puffs Granola Production of Fermented Baked Granola Production of Granola Bars Determination of Bowl-Life Determination of Bowl-Life with the Texturometer Research Suggestions Research Questions Cereal-Based Snacks Popcorn Popcorn Popping Wheat-Based Snacks Production of Pretzels Alkaline-Cooked Snacks Production of Alkaline-Cooked Parched Corn Production of Corn Chips Production of Tortilla Chips Extruded Snacks Production of Baked Cheese-Flavored Corn Puffs Production of Fried Cheese-Flavored Corn Puffs Production of Third-Generation Snacks Research Suggestions Research Questions 328 References 329

12 Contents xvii Chapter 13 Production of Modified Starches, Syrups, and Sweeteners Introduction Modified Starches Pregelatinized Starches Production of Pregelatinized Starches Chemically Modified Starches Production of Acid-Treated or Dextrinized Starches Production of Oxidized/Bleached Starches Production of Cross-Bonded Starches Production of Derivatized and Substituted Starches (Acetylated, Propionylated, and Butyryated) Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Syrups Low-Dextrose Equivalent (DE) Syrups (Maltodextrins) Production of Low-DE Syrups via Acid Hydrolysis Production of Low-DE Syrups via Hydrolysis with Heat-Stable cx-amylase Maltose Syrups Production of Regular and High-Maltose Syrups Glucose Syrups Production of Glucose Syrups High-Fructose Corn Syrups Production of Fructose Syrups (HFCS) Research Suggestions Research Questions 341 References 342 Chapter 14 Production of Malt, Beer, Distilled Spirits, and Fuel Ethanol Introduction Production of European Beers and Sake Production of Barley Malts Production of Diastatic Malts Production ofnondiastatic and Dark Malts Determination of Diastatic Activity of Malt (AACC 2000, Method 22-16) Production of Hopped Beers Production of Regular Lager Beer Production of Dark Beer Production of Light Beer Production of Ale Beers Production of Rice Wine or Sake Production of Sake Research Suggestions Research Questions Production of Cereal-Based Alcoholic Spirits and Bioethanol Distilled Spirits Production of Distilled Spirits Production of Fuel Ethanol from Cereals Research Suggestions Research Questions 360 References 360 Index 361