Cognitive Consistency and Mass Communication

Transcription

1 Cognitive Consistency and Mass Communication 主讲教师 : 王积龙

2 Conceptualization Cognitive dissonance is the term used in modern psychology to describe the state of people when holding two or more conflicting cognitions (e.g., ideas, beliefs, values, emotional reactions) simultaneously. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel surprise, dread, guilt, anger, or embarrassment. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements. It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they "find themselves doing things that don't fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold. A key assumption is that people want their expectations to meet reality, creating a sense of equilibrium.

3 Irrationality for Consistency Rationalization emphasizes that in our desire to appear rational consistent to ourselves. we often employ means that may seem irrational or inconsistent to others. Consistency theories recognize human attempts at rationality, but in achieving it we often display striking irrationality. The concept of rationalization assumes both rationality and irrationality we often use irrational means to achieve understanding, to justify painful experiences, or to make the world fit frame of reference.

4 别了, 司徒雷登 美国的白皮书, 选择在司徒雷登 ⑴ 业已离开南京 快到华盛顿 但是尚未到达的日子 八月五日发表, 是可以理解的, 因为他是美国侵略政策彻底失败的象征 司徒雷登是一个在中国出生的美国人, 在中国有相当广泛的社会联系, 在中国办过多年的教会学校, 在抗日时期坐过日本人的监狱, 平素装着爱美国也爱中国, 颇能迷惑一部分中国人, 因此被马歇尔看中, 做了驻华大使, 成为马歇尔系统中的风云人物之一 在马歇尔系统看来, 他只有一个缺点, 就是在他代表马歇尔系统的政策在中国当大使的整个时期, 恰恰就是这个政策彻底地被中国人民打败了的时期, 这个责任可不小 以脱卸责任为目的的白皮书, 当然应该在司徒雷登将到未到的日子发表为适宜 美国出钱出枪, 蒋介石出人, 替美国打仗杀中国人, 借以变中国为美国殖民地的战争, 组成了美国帝国主义在第二次世界大战以后的世界侵略政策的一个重大的部分 美国侵略政策的对象有好几个部分 欧洲部分, 亚洲部分, 美洲部分, 这三个是主要的部分 中国是亚洲的重心, 是一个具有四亿七千五百万人口的大国, 夺取了中国, 整个亚洲都是它的了 美帝国主义的亚洲战线巩固了, 它就可以集中力量向欧洲进攻 美帝国主义在美洲的战线, 它是认为比较地巩固的 这些就是美国侵略者的整个如意算盘 可是, 一则美国的和全世界的人民都不要战争 ; 二则欧洲人民的觉悟, 东欧各人民民主国家的兴起, 特别是苏联这个空前强大的和平堡垒耸立在欧亚两洲之间, 顽强地抵抗着美国的侵略政策, 使美国的注意力大部分被吸引住了 ; 三则, 这是主要的, 中国人民的觉悟, 中国共产党领导的武装力量和民众组织力量已经空前地强大起来了 这样, 就迫使美帝国主义的当权集团不能采取大规模地直接地武装进攻中国的政策, 而采取了帮助蒋介石打内战的政策 美国的海陆空军已经在中国参加了战争 青岛 上海和台湾, 有美国的海军基地 北平 天津 唐山 秦皇岛 青岛 上海 南京都驻过美国的军队 美国的空军控制了全中国, 并从空中拍摄了全中国战略要地的军用地图 在北平附近的安平镇, 在长春附近的九台, 在唐山, 在胶东半岛, 美国的军队或军事人员曾经和人民解放军接触过, 被人民解放军俘虏过多次 ⑵ 陈纳德航空队曾经广泛地参战 ⑶ 美国的空军除替蒋介石运兵外, 又炸沉了起义的重庆号巡洋舰 ⑷ 所有这些, 都是直接参战的行动, 只是还没有公开宣布作战, 并且规模还不算大, 而以大规模地出钱出枪出顾问人员帮助蒋介石打内战为主要的侵略方式 美国之所以采取这种方式, 是被中国和全世界的客观形势所决定的, 并不是美帝国主义的当权派 杜鲁门 马歇尔系统不想直接侵略中国 在助蒋作战的开头, 又曾演过一出美国出面调处国共两党争端的文明戏, 企图软化中国共产党和欺骗中国人民, 不战而控制全中国 和谈失败了, 欺骗不行了, 战争揭幕了

5

6

7 Conceptualization People need consistency in their lives and this theory shows how people motivate themselves to work and adjust inconsistent measures. There are three steps to this theory: People expect consistency. Inconsistencies create a state of dissonance Dissonance drives us to restore consistency.

8 The Social-Psychological Approach Predictability and Inconsistency Consistency is the notion that phenomena are ordered(or consistent) that allows predictability. Predictability, in turn, allows the scientist to formulate and test hypotheses, make generalizations from them, build theory, and predict future outcomes. The concept of rationalization assumes both rationality and irrationality---we often use irrational means to achieve understanding, to justify painful experiences. That is, we make the world fit our frame of reference.

9 Heider s Balance Theory Cognitive Consistency and Mass Communication Balance theory, which was originated by Heider (1946), analyzes systems consisting of two or three persons (or two persons and an object), with any two of these entities related to each other by either positive or negative sentiments, or not related at all. In brief, there are likely to be either two minus (e.g., "dislike") links or none. Balance State designates a situation in which the perceived units( 被感知的个体 ) and the experienced sentiments( 所感知的情绪 ) co-exist without stress.

10 Heider s Balance Theory Cognitive Consistency and Mass Communication Heider s paradigm focused on two individuals, a person(p), the object of the analysis, some other person(o), and a physical object, idea, or event(x).

11 Your Heider s Topic Balance Goes Theory Here Balance Theory is a motivational theory of attitude change proposed by Fritz Heider, which conceptualizes the consistency motive as a drive toward psychological balance. Heider proposed that "sentiment" or liking relationships are balanced if the affect valence in a system multiplies out to a positive result. For example: a Person who likes an Other person will be balanced by the same valence attitude on behalf of the other. Symbolically, P (+) > O and P < (+) O results in psychological balance.

12 Your Cognitive Topic Consistency Goes Here A balanced state is stable and resist outside influences. An unbalanced state is assumed to be unstable and to produce psychological tension within an individual. This tension become relieved only when change within the situation takes place in such a way that a state of balance is achieved. (Heider, 1958). Thus, a balanced state is obtained when, for instance, P likes O, P likes X, and O likes X; or when P likes O, P dislikes X, and O dislikes X; or when P dislikes O, P likes X, and O dislikes X.

13 Cigarette ads from the Past How the ads construct the consistency?

14 Your Cognitive Topic Consistency Goes Here Your Subtopics Go Here

15 Newcomb Symmetry Theory Every man is like the company he is wont to keep (Greek) Euripides Today we say, Birds od a feather flock together. Newcomb, in contrast to Heider, stresses communication. The less the symmetry between A and B about X, the more probable that A will communicate with B regarding X. symmetry predicts that people associate with or become friends of people with whom they agree.

16 Newcomb Symmetry Theory Theodore M. Newcomb uses the term symmetry theory to distinguish it from balance theory and contends that we attempt to influence one another to bring about symmetry(or balance). However, for attitude change to take place, a person must come into contact with information that differs from his or her present attitudes. Newcomb s symmetry theory predicts that the more A is attracted to B(a person or a group), the greater the opinion change in the part of A toward the position of B.

17 Your Newcomb's Topic conception Goes Here of Balance Newcomb advanced Heider's balance theory in He, also, identifies three psychological states: balance, imbalance, and nonbalance. In the balance state, the set of cognitive elements is accepted as it is; in the second state, modification will be attempted; and in the third state, indifference between acceptance and modification may prevail. In addition to substituting A for P, and B for O, Newcomb took Heider's notion of balance out of one person's head and applied it to communication among people. He conceived of the simplest communication act as one in which one person A gives information to another person B about something X.

18 Newcomb sees four basic components of this relational system: (1) A's attitude toward X, (2) A's attraction to B, (3) B's attitude toward X, and (4) B's attraction to A. According to the model, both A and B have a natural propensity toward balance in their coorientation toward X and their partner. If A has a negative attitude toward smoking (X) and a very positive attraction toward B, but B has a positive attitude toward smoking (X) and toward A, then A will experience an imbalance resulting in a push toward revision of attitudes to regain balance. This "strain toward balance" can be resolved by one or a combination of (1) A decreasing the amount of liking for B, (2) A changing his attitude toward X, and (3) A changing B's attitude about X to align with A's. A's actions are dependent on A's own orientations as well as A's perceptions of B's orientations, and vice versa for B. Thus, both communicators are continually making predictions or estimates of their partner's orientations Your Newcomb's Topic conception Goes Here of Balance

19 Your Newcomb's Topic conception Goes Here of Balance A-B-X is regarded as constituting a system. That is certain definable relationships between A and B, between A and X, and between B and X. For some purposes the system may be regarded as a phenomenal one within the life space of A or B, for other purposes as an "objective" system including all the possible relationships as inferred from observations of A's and B's behavior (Newcomb, 1953). Newcomb then developed the concept of "strain toward symmetry," which appears to be a special instance of Heider's more general notion of " tendency toward balance." This means that there is a tendency for A and B to have attitudes of the same sign toward a common X. Communication is the most effective manifestations of this tendency. If A is free either to continue or not to continue his association with B, one or the other of two eventual outcomes is likely: (a) he achieves an equilibrium characterized by relatively great attraction toward B and by relatively high perceived symmetry, and the association is continued; or (b) he achieves an equilibrium characterized by relatively little attraction toward B and by relatively low perceived symmetry, and the association is discontinued (Newcomb, 1953).

20 Newcomb symmetry theory See video: 60s TV Commercials/ cigarettes,.

21 Osgood s Congruity Theory Osgood and Tannenbaum s congruity theory, ( 调和理论 Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955). Its fundamental axiom is that the individual tends to restore cognitive balance when two cognitions are in disagreement through a proportional change in each cognition. Several important variables constitute this principle, namely, the existing attitude toward the goal object, the existing attitude toward the source of the message about the goal object, and the evaluative nature of the assertion between source and goal object. The congruity model deals specifically with the problem of direction of attitude change toward both the source and the goal object. A great part of the theory that underlies the congruity principle grew out of Osgood's work concerning the meaning of concepts and the measurement of meaning by use of the semantic differential scales (Osgood, 1952).

22 Micro-blog for Lei Zhengfu Event, 2012

23 Osgood s Congruity Theory

24 Osgood s Congruity Theory In the congruity paradigm a person (P) receives an assertion from a source(s), toward which he or she has an attitude, about an object (0), toward which he or she also has an attitude. In Osgood's model, how much P likes S. A person will determine if a state of congruity or consistency exists. According to congruity theory, when a change occurs, it is always toward greater congruity with prevailing frames of reference. Osgood uses his semantic differential to measure the amount of liking a person may have for a source and the object of an assertion. In essence, the definitions of balance and congruity are identical. Incongruity exists when the attitudes toward the source and the object are similar and the assertion is negative or when they are dissimilar and the assertion is positive. An unbalanced state has either one or all negative relations.

25 Osgood s Congruity Theory

26 Incongruity and the Media Incongruity does not always produce attitude change. There is some basis for the belief that much material in the media that would produce incongruity in an individual never does so. In the process of selecting what we will pay attention to only the parts of a message that agree with our prevailing frame of reference.

27 Incongruity and the Media Selective Perception If we do receive a message that causes incongruity, we may misperceive the message Selective Perception to make it fit our view of reality. One sees as one wishes to see. Degas(French painter and sculpture)

28 Incongruity and the Media Selective Retention Selective Exposure Selective Attention A PBS documentary, in both English and Spanish, revisit the controversial U.S. Mexican War, which Americans can hardly remember and Mexicans can hardly forget. It was described as a war for land, power, and national identity. In U.S. histories, it is The Mexican War, While to the Mexicans it is, The U.S. invasion. A professor quote, We won the war with Mexico. Why aren t we celebrating it? The obvious answer is that we re embarrassed by it We don t want to celebrate the portions of history that make us blush and feel uncomfortable.

29 Incongruity and the Media Collective Amnesia of A Nation

30 Collective Amnesia of A Nation The Vietnam war The Number of Missing American Soldiers: 2,265; The Number of Missing Vietnamese: 300,000(132 times); The Number of American Casualties: 50,000; The Number of the Americans murdered:400,000; 8 times

31 Incongruity and the Media

32 Incongruity and the Media Collective Amnesia of A Nation

33 Incongruity and the Media Collective Amnesia of A Nation

34 Incongruity and the Media The prior discussion reflects the circular process of communication inherent to the Osgood-Schramm model, originated with U.S. psychologist, Charles Egerton Osgood, and presented by Schramm in Osgood s accomplishments include writings on meaning and language behavior, work at the Institute of Communications Research and the Center for Advanced Study at the University of Illinois, and pioneering efforts as a psycholinguist, to name a few. In an effort to explain the intricacies of human language behavior, Osgood divided human information processing into 4 categories: (1) "Sensory Recoding" or "Perceiving" (2) "Decoding" or "Interpreting" (3) "Encoding" or "Intending to Act" (4) "Motor Recoding" or "Responding" (Tanaka, 1989) The following is a representation of the Osgood-Schramm model as depicted in McQuail and Windahl (1981).

35 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Theory- Festinger, 1957 This theory focuses on consequences of incompatibility between two related cognitions. For example- if one studies hard for a test, he expects to do well. But if he studies hard and fails, dissonance is aroused. A person who recieved a small reward for a difficult task said it wasn't so bad, but those who got a large reward for the same task said the task was horrible. Cognitive dissonance makes us reduce negative affects of experience to justify doing it for such a small reward. There are many problems with this theory's research- it is invalidated by the random dropping of subjects and because shortcomings of the studies are often ignored in later references.

36 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance

37 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Exaples of Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance

38 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Examples of cognitive dissonance: A person is on a diet but eats a chocolate cake. A student knows (cognition) their exam results are important but does not revise (behaviour). When people smoke (behaviour) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition).

39 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways: First, individuals can change one or more of the attitudes, behaviour, beliefs etc. so as to make the relationship between the two elements a consonant one. When one of the dissonant elements is a behaviour, the individual can change or eliminate the behavior. However, this mode of dissonance reduction frequently presents problems for people, as it is often difficult for people to change well-learned behavioral responses (e.g. giving up smoking). A second (cognitive) method of reducing dissonance is to acquire new information that outweighs the dissonant beliefs. For example, thinking smoking causes lung cancer will cause dissonance if a person smokes. However, new information such as research has not proved definitely that smoking causes lung cancer may reduce the dissonance. A third way to reduce dissonance is to reduce the importance of the cognitions (i.e. beliefs, attitudes). A person could convince them self that it is better to "live for today" than to "save for tomorrow." In other words, he could tell himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than a long life devoid of such joys. In this way, he would be decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition ("smoking is bad of ones health"). Notice that dissonance theory does not state that these modes of dissonance reduction will actually work, only that individuals who are in a state of cognitive dissonance will take steps to reduce the extent of their dissonance. One of the points that dissonance theorists are fond of making is that people will go to all sorts of lengths to reduce dissonance.

40 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Dissonance and Decision-Making Life is filled with decisions, and decisions (as a general rule) arouse dissonance. For example, suppose you had to decide whether to accept a job in an absolutely beautiful area of the country, or turn down the job so you could be near your friends and family. Either way, you would experience dissonance. If you took the job you would miss your loved ones; if you turned the job down, you would pine for the beautiful streams, mountains, and valleys. Both alternatives have their good points and bad points. The rub is that making a decision cuts off the possibility that you can enjoy the advantages of the unchosen alternative, yet it assures you that you must accept the disadvantages of the chosen alternative. People have several ways to reduce dissonance that is aroused by making a decision (Festinger, 1964). One thing they can do is to change the behavior. As noted earlier, this is often very difficult, so people frequently employ a variety of mental maneuvers. A common way to reduce dissonance is to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the rejected alternative. This is referred to as "spreading apart the alternatives."

41 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Dissonance and Decision-Making Brehm (1956) was the first to investigate the relationship between dissonance and decision-making. Female subjects were informed they would be helping out in a study funded by several manufacturers. Subjects also were told that they would receive one of the products at the end of the experiment to compensate for their time and effort. The women then rated the desirability of eight household products that ranged in price from $15 to $30. The products included an automatic coffee maker, an electric sandwich grill, an automatic toaster, and a portable radio. Participants in the control group were simply given one of the products. Because these subjects did not make a decision, they did not have any dissonance to reduce. Individuals in the low-dissonance group chose between a desirable product and one rated 3 points lower on an 8-point scale. Subjects in the highdissonance condition chose between a highly desirable product and one rated just 1 point lower on the 8-point scale. After reading the reports about the various products, individuals rated the products again. Participants in the high-dissonance condition spread apart the alternatives significantly more than did the participants in the other two conditions. In other words, they were more likely than participants in the other two conditions to increase the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and to decrease the attractiveness of the unchosen alternative.

42 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Dissonance and Forced-Compliance Behaviour When someone is forced to do (publicly) something they (privately) really don't want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition (I didn't want to do this) and their behaviour (I did it). Forced compliance occurs when an individual performs an action that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs. The behaviour can't be changed, since it is already in the past, so dissonance will need to be reduced by re-evaluating their attitude to what they have done. This prediction has been tested experimentally: In an intriguing experiment, Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) asked participants to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). As you can imagine, participant's attitudes toward this task were highly negative. They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a waiting participant (relay a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the subject accomplice that the boring experiment would be fun.

43 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Dissonance and Forced-Compliance Behaviour Aim: Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) investigated if making people perform a dull task would create cognitive dissonance through forced compliance behaviour. Method: In their laboratory experiment, they used 71 male students as participants to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a waiting participant (a confederate) that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the confederate that the boring experiment would be fun. Results: When the participants were asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie. Conclusion: Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

44 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Selective Exposure & Selective Attention

45 Festinger s Theory of Cogitive Dissonance Selective Exposure & Selective Attention