BURNOUT: A STUDY OF HIGH SCHOOL COACHES IN FLORIDA

Transcription

1 BURNOUT: A STUDY OF HIGH SCHOOL COACHES IN FLORIDA by Shelley Holden Bradford M. Ed., University of South Alabama, 1996 B. S., University of South Alabama, 1995 A dissertation submitted to the Division of Teacher Education Curriculum and Instruction College of Professional Studies The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education 2006

2 The dissertation of Shelley Holden Bradford is approved: G. Michael Barry, Committee Member Date Francis S. Bridges, Committee Member Date Jill White, Committee Member Date Wally Holmes Bouchillon, Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: Joseph M. Peters, Chair Date Accepted for the College: Don Chu, Dean Date Accepted for the University: Richard S. Podemski, Dean Office of Graduate Studies Date ii

3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In addition to my Advisory Committee Members, several individuals have been particularly supportive in my research. Spike Henning, from the Information Technology Services (ITS) Office at The University of West Florida, was instrumental in obtaining the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) instrument online for data collection. Eliza McLane, from Consulting Psychologist Press (CPP) licensing department, was generous with her time in assisting me to obtain permission to use the MBI instrument online. My family and friends have been supportive of my desire to return to graduate school. They have helped in numerous ways during my pursuit of a doctoral degree. I am thankful for their support and tolerance during this process. I would especially like to thank my mother and my husband for their constant support and encouragement. Without the support of my family and friends, this milestone could not have been attained. Therefore, I want to acknowledge them publicly for their role in the completion of my dissertation. iii

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... iii LIST OF TABLES...vi ABSTRACT... vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION...1 A. Statement of the Problem...4 B. Purpose of the Study...4 C. Research Questions Research Question Research Question Research Question Null Hypotheses Alternative Hypotheses...6 D. Significance of the Study...7 E. Definitions of Terms...8 F. Organization of the Study...11 CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...12 A. History of Burnout Research...12 B. Social Exchange Theory...14 C. Maslach Burnout Inventory...15 D. The Importance of Sports and Coaching...17 E. Female Coaches...20 F. Teacher Burnout...23 G. High School, College, and Club Coaches...24 H. Athletes, Officials, and Athletic Trainers...28 I. Summary...32 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY...35 A. Research Design...35 B. Research Setting...36 C. Participants...36 iv Page

5 D. Instrumentation Maslach Burnout Inventory Demographics Survey Sport Classification...42 E. Data Collection...42 F. Data Analysis...43 G. Statistical Procedures...44 CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. RESULTS...46 A. Descriptive Statistics...47 B. Chi-Square Analyses...49 C. Analysis of Variance...54 CONCLUSION...58 A. Overview of the Study and Findings...59 B. Discussion of the Research Questions Research Question Research Question Research Question C. Discussion of the Findings...62 D. Limitations of the Study Geography Reliability of the Athletic Directors Cooperation Coaches Titles...64 E. Researcher Bias...64 F. Recommendations for Practitioners...65 G. Recommendations for Future Research...66 H. Summary...68 REFERENCES...70 APPENDIXES...79 A. Permission to Administer the MBI Electronically...80 B. Permission to Publish Sample Questions...83 C. Maslach Burnout Inventory Sample Questions...86 D. Demographics Survey...88 E. Institutional Review Board Permission Letter...90 F. Letter of Request to Participants...92 v

6 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Major Issues Regarding Attrition Factors in the Coaching Profession Major Reasons Why Former Head Coaches Left the Profession Chi-Square Numbers and Percentages on Coaching Status and Burnout Levels on the MBI Emotional Exhaustion Subscale Chi-Square Numbers and Percentages on Coaching Status and Burnout Levels on the MBI Personal Accomplishment Subscale Chi-Square Numbers and Percentages on Sport Classification and Burnout Levels on the MBI Emotional Exhaustion Subscale Chi-Square Numbers and Percentages on Sport Classification and Burnout Levels on the MBI Depersonalization Subscale Analysis of Variance for Sport Classification and Coaching Status on the MBI Subscale of Personal Accomplishment Means and Standard Deviations for Coaching Status and Sport Classification on the MBI Subscale of Personal Accomplishment MBI Subscale Scores Based on Coaching Groups Means and Standard Deviations for the MBI Subscales...57 vi

7 ABSTRACT BURNOUT: A STUDY OF HIGH SCHOOL COACHES IN FLORIDA Shelley Holden Bradford The purpose of this study was to identify the degree of burnout experienced by current and former head varsity high school coaches in Florida. The sample included 78 current and 46 former head varsity high school coaches. Burnout was assessed by the three burnout subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment on the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Results of Chi-Square analyses indicated a significant relationship between coaching status and levels of burnout on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment. More specifically, former head coaches were more likely to experience higher levels of burnout on the MBI subscale of emotional exhaustion than current coaches. Minor sport coaches were more likely to experience high levels of burnout on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization than major sport coaches. The ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for coaching status and a significant main interaction effect for coaching status and sport classification based on the subscale of personal accomplishment. No significant difference was evident on all levels of burnout based on gender and current and former coach status. Limitations of the study were noted. vii

8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Much prior research has focused on the benefits and drawbacks of coaching, particularly with regard to job satisfaction. Based on this research, current and former coaches have reported the following reasons for coaching (a) Enjoyment of working with the athletes, (b) the challenge of building a successful program, and (c) feelings of selfsatisfaction (Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002). Other research, however, has investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and burnout in coaches (Capel, Sisley, & Desertrain, 1987; Kelley, 1994; Kelley, Eklund, & Ritter-Taylor, 1999; Kelley & Gill, 1993; Raedeke,Warren, & Granzyk, 2000; Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002; Reynaud, 2005). Burnout is a multidimensional syndrome that affects those working in human services occupations, such as coaching, in which day-to-day interpersonal interaction is an integral part of work (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Coaches often distance themselves from their players because they feel exhausted or emotionally depleted (Maslach & Jackson). Burnout in the coaching profession not only impacts the individual coach but also affects the athletes coached (Harris, 2005; Kjormo & Halvari, 2006). Reasons for burnout in coaches that can lead to stress include (a) pressure to win, (b) time demands, 1

9 2 (c) lack of compensation, (d) inequalities in men s and women s programs, and (e) lack of administrative support (Kelley, 1994). Stress is viewed as a mismatch between the perceived demands of a situation and one s perceived capabilities and resources for meeting those demands (Lazarus, 1990; Smith, 1986). When the demands of an individual s circumstances outweigh the individual s ability to handle the situation, the result is the experience of negative stress (Kelley & Gill, 1993). Stressors in coaching situations that can contribute to burnout are gender, communication with athletes, boosters, administrators, and the media (Kelley, 1994). In fact, burnout in coaching is an area of concern since sports organizations recognize that continuity among coaches is important to sustain quality sports programs (Raedeke, 2004; Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002). Consequently, sports organizations view coaching turnover as a critical issue. Christina Maslach is recognized as the leading authority on burnout in educational settings (Kelley & Gill, 1993; Nelson, 2005). Prior research by Maslach and colleagues (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986; Maslach, 1976; Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1986) has identified the major components of burnout. Their extensive work has provided not only a more fully developed conceptualization of burnout, but also a psychometrically sound instrument for the measurement of burnout, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). The MBI is designed to measure an enduring state of experienced burnout and to assess levels and patterns of burnout among groups of workers (Zalaquett & Wood, 1997). These workers were employed within a variety of human service occupations such as (a) civil servants, (b) rural workers, (c) computer technicians, (d) clerical workers, (e) management, (f) nurses, and (g) psychiatric aides (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996).

10 3 However, since its first publication, the MBI has been modified to include educators because of the high interest in burnout in the educational setting. Accordingly, the MBI was first developed and published for educators in 1986 (Zalaquett & Wood). Similar to the original MBI, the educator version measures emotional exhaustion, that is, feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one s work. When this affective state becomes chronic, teachers can no longer give of themselves to students as they once could. Teachers who do not have positive feelings about students are experiencing the second component of teacher burnout, depersonalization that is, teachers have a reserved and impersonal response toward students. This can be exhibited by using derogatory labels for students (e.g., They are animals), exhibiting cold or distant attitudes, physically distancing themselves from students, and tuning out students through psychological withdrawal (Zalaquett & Wood, 1997). The third component on the MBI is a feeling of low personal accomplishment from work. Most teachers enter the profession to help students and when teachers feel they are not achieving this objective, they are vulnerable to experiencing disappointment. It is difficult for educators to abandon their dedication to teaching thus, the job provides minimal opportunities in which a teacher can focus on his or her accomplishments (Maslach et al., 1996). According to Malsach and Leiter (1997) and Leiter and Maslach (2001), the environment across workplaces affects large numbers of employees who experience burnout. These authors describe today s workplace as cold, hostile, and demanding, both physically and psychologically; thus, the joy of success and the thrill of achievement are more difficult to attain in such an environment. Further, dedication and commitment to a job are less apparent than in the past. Maslach and Leiter concluded, People are

11 4 becoming cynical, keeping their distance, and trying not to get themselves too involved (p. 1). This is evident in the coaching profession and can lead to job dissatisfaction, job stress, and burnout. The findings from this study should help new teachers and coaches understand the concept of burnout and how burnout can affect their professional careers. The data obtained from the study will provide a decision framework for coaching prospects on whether they really want to be a teacher and coach before they fully enter into the profession. Statement of the Problem Attrition is a major concern in the coaching profession and is a side effect of burnout. The reasons why coaches are attracted to this profession, such as the opportunity to work with young people and obtaining a sense of achievement, may no longer be enough to maintain high motivation and to remain in this occupation. Sport organizations recognize that continuity among sports coaches is important in sustaining quality sports programs for student populations (Raedeke, 2004; Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to identify the degree of burnout experienced by current and former head varsity high school coaches in Florida. Further, in this study, the researcher also investigated whether burnout influenced coaches to discontinue or to consider discontinuing their coaching positions. The study was limited to current and former varsity head coaches in high schools in Florida and addressed issues such as:

12 5 (1) Are there no statistically significant relationships between scores on the three subscales of the MBI scores based on a coach s status as a current or former coach?; (2) Are there no significant statistical differences and relationships in the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI burnout subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on gender?; and (3) There are no significant statistical differences and relationships between the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on sport classification coached (minor, major, or both)? The sample population in this study was limited to current and former head varsity high school coaches in Florida. By addressing these questions, the results should provide knowledge of the problem of burnout that is facing many high school coaches today. Research Questions Research Question 1 Are there any statistically significant relationships between scores on the three subscales of the MBI scores based on a coach s status as a current or former coach? Research Question 2 Are there any significant statistical differences and relationships in the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI burnout subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on gender?

13 6 Research Question 3 Are there any significant statistical differences and relationships between the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on sport classification coached (minor, major, or both)? Null Hypotheses 1. There are no statistically significant relationships between scores on the three subscales of the MBI scores based on a coach s status as a current or former coach. 2. There are no significant statistical differences and relationships in the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI burnout subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on gender. 3. There are no significant statistical differences and relationships between the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on sport classification coached (minor, major, or both). Alternative Hypotheses 1. There are statistically significant relationships in the scores on the three subscales of the MBI as a function of a coach s status as a current or former coach. Former coaches will experience higher levels of burnout on the MBI subscales of

14 7 emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment than current coaches. 2. There are statistical significance differences and relationships in the scores on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment based on gender. That is, female coaches will experience higher levels of burnout on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment than male coaches while male coaches will experience higher levels of burnout on the MBI subscale of depersonalization. 3. There are statistical significance differences and relationships in the scores of current and former coaches on the MBI subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment and sport classification coached (minor, major, or both). More specifically, major sport coaches will experience higher levels of burnout than minor sport coaches and coaches of both sport classifications. Significance of the Study Coaches are an important part of the lives of the student players. They function as mentors, leaders, and people dedicated to individual and team development. Moreover, coaches act as guides who instill and reinforce values to be applied to athletics as well as life (Erickson, 2004). Coaches teach through their words and by example; their importance in the lives of their players should not be underestimated (Blauner, 2005); therefore, it is important to identify and understand the causes of burnout in the coaching

15 8 profession in order to address the problem of attrition and turnover in high school coaches. Definition of Terms Burnout. Burnout is a multidimensional syndrome that affects those working in human services occupations such as coaching, where employees gradually lose interest in their vocation (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Commitment. According to Rusbult (1983), commitment involves feelings of psychological attachment and the behavioral intent to maintain involvement in a given endeavor. Convergent validity. This refers to the degree to which scores on a test correlate (or are related to scores on other tests that are designed to assess the same construct); for example, to determine whether scores on one student depression instrument relate positively to scores on another depression instrument (Creswell, 2005). Cynicism. According to Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter (2001), cynicism is when people emotionally distance themselves from clients as a way of protecting themselves from intense emotional arousal which could interfere with one s ability to function effectively on the job. Dependent variable. This is an attribute or characteristic that is influenced by the independent variable (Creswell, 2005). Depersonalization. This is the second psychological response (subscale) of burnout. It is characterized by a loss of concern for the people with whom one is working

16 9 and an impersonal and unfeeling response toward them (Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000). Emotional exhaustion. This is the first dimension or component of burnout. It illustrates feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by work (Maslach, 1982). Entrapment. Coaches become less attracted to coaching but feel they have to maintain their involvement because (a) they perceive a lack of alternatives to coaching, (b) they have too much time invested to quit, and (c) they think others expect them to continue coaching (Raedeke et al., 2000). Hardiness. This is a personality construct that reflects control (the tendency to believe one s ability to influence the course of events and to act as if one has power in the face of various circumstances), commitment (facing life with an eager curiosity, a sense of purpose, and a willingness to commit oneself to relationships), and challenge (believing that change rather than stability in life is the norm and that changes are interesting, positive, and stimulus for growth; Hendrix, Acevedo, & Hebert, 2000). Human services occupations (employees). This group is also referred to as helping professionals and includes civil servants, rural workers, computer technicians, clerical workers, management, nurses, psychiatric workers, and educators (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Independent variable. This is an attribute or characteristic that influences or affects an outcome or dependent variable (Creswell, 2005). Major sport. For the purpose of this study, a major sport is a sport recognized by the Florida High School Activities Association (FHSAA) that competes in more than four

17 10 classifications at the state championship series of competition. The major sports in this study are baseball, boys and girls basketball, football, girls and boys soccer, softball, and girls volleyball. Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). This is recognized as the leading measure of burnout. The inventory is a 22-item questionnaire that assesses the frequency of experienced burnout on the three subscales of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Minor sport. For the purpose of this study, a minor sport is a sport recognized by the FHSAA that competes in four or fewer classifications at the state championship series of competition. The minor sports in this study are cross country, golf, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, boys weightlifting, and wrestling. Outcomes. The rewards and costs a person experiences in an activity. The greater the rewards in relation to the costs, the higher the outcomes (Smith, 1986). Personal accomplishment. This is the third psychological construct (subscale) of burnout. It is associated with feelings of achievement and a sense of competence about one s job and a sense of self-appreciation for achieved successes (Hendrix et al., 2000). State championship series. A state championship series is sanctioned by the Florida High School Activities Association (FHSAA) and is used to determine the official state champion(s) of the 15 recognized sports (Florida High School Activities Association, ). Stress. For the purpose of this study, stress is viewed as a mismatch between the perceived demands of a situation and one s perceived capabilities and resources for meeting those demands (Lazarus, 1990; Smith, 1986).

18 11 Variable. The characteristic or attribute of an individual or organization that (a) can be measured or observed by the researcher and (b) varies among individuals or organizations under study (Creswell, 2005). Organization of the Study This research study is divided into five chapters. Included in Chapter 1 are the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, hypotheses, significance of the study, definition of terms, and organization of the study. In Chapter 2, a comprehensive overview is provided of the literature related to (a) the history on burnout research; (b) Maslach Burnout Inventory; (c) social exchange theory; (d) the impact of sports and coaching; (e) female coaches; (f) teacher burnout; (g) burnout in high school, college, and club coaches; and (h) burnout in athletes, officials, and athletic trainers. The research design, sample population, data collection, instrumentation, analysis of data, and statistical procedures are presented in Chapter 3. The results of the study are presented in Chapter 4. Finally, in Chapter 5, the findings and conclusions are discussed, the limitations of the study are noted, and recommendations are made for practitioners and future research.

19 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In this literature review, numerous bibliographic sources were searched using descriptor phrases such as coaching burnout, commitment, coaching/athlete commitment, teacher burnout, Title IX, and athlete burnout. The following is a review of the literature on several key topical areas: (a) the history of burnout research; (b) social exchange theory; (c) Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI); (d) the impact of sports and coaching; (e) female coaches; (f) teachers; (g) high school, college, and club coaches; and (h) athletes, officials, and athletic trainers. History of Burnout Research The use of the word burnout first appeared regularly in the literature with regard to individuals who worked in the human services industry in the 1970s (Maslach, et al., 2001). The initial goal was to define the phenomenon of burnout. Early researchers described the phenomenon of burnout and showed that it was not an uncommon response in human populations. Freudenberger (1975), a psychiatrist working in the health care system, and Maslach (1976), a social psychologist who was studying emotions in the workplace, introduced seminal works in the literature. 12

20 13 There were three distinct components of burnout that surfaced from Maslach s early interviews with human services workers. First, the service and care professions are very demanding and stressful occupations and emotional exhaustion is highly prevalent due to job overload (Maslach et al., 2001; Nelson, 2005); therefore, the subscale of emotional exhaustion was developed as a major facet of burnout. The second subscale/component of burnout, depersonalization (cynicism), also emerged from interview data. For example, people in the helping professions moderate their compassion for clients by maintaining an emotional distance from them as a way of protecting themselves from intense emotional arousal that could interfere with functioning effectively on the job (Maslach et al., 2001). Malsach s early work also revealed a central focus on relationships between the provider and recipient as well as between the provider and coworkers or family members. According to Maslach et al., these relationships, were the source of both emotional strains and rewards and sometimes they functioned as a resource for coping with stress (2001, p. 400). Thus, the third phase of burnout, personal accomplishment, was integrated into the conceptual framework of the construct of burnout. The research on burnout became more quantitative and systematic in nature during the 1980s. Survey methodology and studying larger populations became the norm. Also, during this time, the Maslach Burnout Inventory was developed and was considered the major instrument on the assessment of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001). First developed for use in the human services occupations, the MBI has since been modified to assess burnout in educators (Berglas, 2001). The third phase of burnout research occurred in the 1990s when the concept of burnout was expanded to encompass occupations outside human services and education

21 14 professions. Moreover, research on burnout in the 1990s included the use of advanced statistical tools and methodologies, such as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). The use of the enhanced statistical tools and methodologies yielded empirical findings that led to the use of structural models in burnout research (Maslach et al., 2001). Furthermore, another advance in research during the 1990s was the implementation of longitudinal research designs to assess the connection between the work environment in the helping professions at one point in time and the assessment of workers thoughts and feelings at a later time (Maslach et al.). In addition to research on the construct of burnout, which indicated that burnout is a consequence of the interaction of an individual within a work setting, novel approaches were used in assessing the efficacy of interventions to alleviate burnout. The 1990s also marked the beginnings of research interest on the phenomenon and impact of burnout in personnel in the sporting field, particularly coaching. Social Exchange Theory Smith (1986), Gould (1987), Gould and Petlichkoff (1988), and Petlichkoff (1993) have proposed models to account for enjoyment, turnover, and burnout in sports. Their models include elements from Thibault and Kelley s (1959) social exchange theory. Smith recommended social exchange theory as a basis for studying withdrawal among athletes and coaches in sports. He defined outcomes as the rewards and costs a person experiences in an activity. The greater the rewards in relation to the costs, the higher the outcomes for the individuals involved. From an athletic perspective, rewards include tangible consequences such as money, property or trophies as well as

22 15 psychological ones such as achievement of desired goals, feelings of competence, and mastery, and the admiration and esteem of others (Smith, p. 37). Costs also encompass the full range of athletic experiences including the amount of time and effort expended, feelings of failure or disapproval of others, negative emotions such as anxiety or depression, feelings of helplessness or lack of control, or the inability to engage in other activities or relationships (Smith, p. 37). Social exchange theory advances the important theoretical position that attraction and dependence are conceptually distinct (Schmidt & Stein, 1991). The social exchange theory explains the more obvious observations that people who enjoy an activity often stay and those who find little enjoyment in it typically choose to leave. This same theory also illustrates why persons who are satisfied sometimes leave and why those dissatisfied sometimes stay. It is important to note that dropout occurs when fairly high outcomes are exceeded by still higher alternatives and burnout results from an increase in stressinduced costs (Smith, 1986). Although social exchange theory has been a valuable tool in the study and analysis of burnout, research based on the prominent instrument in the area, the Malsach Burnout Inventory, has perhaps provided the most rigorous findings on the construct of burnout. Maslach Burnout Inventory Systematic research by Maslach and colleagues (Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986; Maslach, 1976; Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1986) has greatly facilitated the understanding and conceptualization of burnout. Studies by Maslach have produced a psychometrically sound instrument to measure burnout called the Maslach Burnout

23 16 Inventory. According to the two major bibliographic compendiums on testing, Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY) and Test Critiques, reviewers noted that the MBI is the most widely used and accepted research instrument in addressing empirical questions on the issue of burnout (Conoley & Kramer, 1989; Keyser & Sweetland, 1985). More extensive psychometric research has been done on the MBI than any other burnout measure and the multidimensional conceptualization of burnout has made it appropriate for theory-driven research (Zalaquett & Wood, 1997). The MBI is a 22-item instrument in which the test items are written in the form of statements about personal feelings or attitudes (e.g., I feel burned out from my work, I don t really care what happens to some students ). The items are answered in terms of the frequency of experienced feelings on a 7-point, Likert-type scale from 0 (never) to 6 (everyday). The MBI is comprised of three subscales emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Each of the subscales measures three levels of burnout (low, moderate, or high). Each respondent s test form is scored by using a scoring key that contains directions for scoring each of the three subscales. The scores for each subscale are considered separately and are not combined into a single, total score. Thus, three scores are calculated for each respondent and coded as low, moderate, or high using the numerical cutoff points listed on the MBI scoring key (Zalaquett & Wood, 1997). There are nine items on the emotional exhaustion subscale that assesses feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one s work. The five items on the depersonalization subscale measure an unfeeling and impersonal response toward

24 17 recipients of one s service, care, treatment, or instruction. For both the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization subscales, higher mean scores relate to higher degrees of experienced burnout (Maslach et al., 1996). Eight items comprise the personal accomplishment subscale that assesses feelings of competence and successful achievement of one s work with people. In contrast to the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization subscales, lower mean scores on this subscale correspond to higher degrees of experienced burnout (Zalaquett & Wood, 1997). Burnout is a response to the chronic emotional strain of dealing with other human beings, particularly when they are troubled or having problems and can be considered one form of job stress (Maslach, 1982, p. 30). Burnout is a by-product of prolonged stress that can result in negative consequences such as absenteeism, insomnia, fatigue, and aggressive or passive feelings (Maher, 1983). The MBI is the most widely accepted and widely used instrument in the study of burnout in human services occupations (Kelley & Gill, 1993). This inventory has been used in numerous research studies that investigated burnout among teachers, coaches, athletes, officials and athletic trainers (Caccese & Mayerberg, 1984; Dale & Weinberg, 1989; Hakanen, Jari, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; Jevas, 2004; Kelley, 1994; Kelley, Eklund, & Ritter-Taylor, 1999; Kelley & Gill, 1993, Price & Weiss, 2000; Raedeke, 1997, 2004; Ziad, 2003); therefore, the MBI is a critical tool in the study and evaluation of coaching burnout. The Importance of Sports and Coaching According to Thompson (1995), sports are highly valued in our culture because sports stars are viewed as heroes to children of all races and classes. It has been argued

25 18 that sports have become the center of What remains of our American sense of identity and have even become The meeting ground where we discuss our values (Thompson, p. 5). For these reasons, some people believe that organized youth sports are destructive to some children. Further, some believe that competitive pressures associated with sports are destructive (Warren, 1997). However, the majority of people believe that youth sports are a positive vehicle for personal growth, advancement, and maturity (Erickson, 2004). Moreover, sports and coaches provide an incredible opportunity to teach positive lessons about life, hard work, commitment, and responsibility. In fact, research has shown that sports and coaches help players choose a more rewarding path in life (Blauner, 2005). The role of the coach has expanded tremendously over the past 2 decades. Coaches were once thought to provide their players with guidance only in the sports arena. Today, players view coaches as mentors and role models; advice is sought from coaches concerning topics dealing with life. Further, coaches often spend more time with their players than with their immediate family (Erickson, 2004). Studies have shown that players often have lasting memories of their coaches and coaches are often remembered in positive ways when players reflect on their time in sports (Erickson). Many athletes credit their coaches for turning their lives around because the coach took an interest in their well-being (Blauner, 2005). For example, Andrew Blauner s 2005 book summarizes 25 writers reflections on the coaches who made a difference in their lives. The coach of E. M. Swift, the senior writer for the magazine Sports Illustrated, believed that There was nothing better to build the spirit in a youth than with success in sports (Blauner, p. 19). In fact, Swift believed that for many youth, coaches are the highlight of the players athletic careers. His coach made a lasting

26 19 impression on his life and instilled in him a theme that many of his players remembered forever; that is, Why be last? (Blauner, p. 20). Swift s coach believed that few are blessed with the speed and talent to be first, but that everyone, through nothing more than determination and will, has the ability to be better than last. Writer David Maraniss reflected on the influence that legendary football coach, Vince Lombardi, had on his life. Maraniss described Lombardi as, Not obsessed with winning so much as with excellence. He was harder on his teams when they played poorly and won than when they lost but gave it their all (Blauner, 2005, p. 122). Lombardi believed in the idea of freedom through discipline. Further, Lombardi believed the only way to be free is to discipline yourself to master the world around you. A coach also impacted Pulitzer Prize winning author Buzz Bissinger s life (Blauner, 2005). Bissinger described his coach as believing in kids, not simply going through the motions with them. His coach demanded his players take the game seriously. More importantly, Bissinger stressed that his coach, taught us how to care about sport, to honor it, feel the thrill of it, that competition, healthy competition, whether it was dodge ball or basketball or football, was sanctity for the soul (Blauner, p. 44). Sports and coaches teach athletes many lessons such as responsibility, leadership, and discipline that can be carried into adulthood (Thompson, 1995). Sports also provide joy to family members and friends who participate as loyal fans (Erickson, 2004). However, in order for organized sports to be successful, the focus must be on the student athletes. When the focus of sports shifts to the parents or adults, the coaches and players both suffer. Burnout of coaches and players often results from these external pressures associated with athletics (Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002).

27 20 Female Coaches Title IX of the Higher Education Amendment was introduced in 1972 and since then has greatly impacted high school and college athletics. Participation in female sports has increased tremendously since its inception. From 1970 to 1971, the total number of females participating in high school sports in the United States was 268,591. The number has increased to over 1.8 million in (National Federation of State High School Associations, ). Common sense would dictate that this increase in female athletic participation would also show a concomitant increase in the number of female coaches. However, research reveals that this is not the case. In Wisconsin, females coached 100% of the girls teams from 1971 to 1972, but by 1984 and 1985, only 41% of the girls teams were coached by women (True, 1986). In Washington, women coached 85% of the girls teams from 1971 to 1972, followed by a decline to 32% in 1984 and 1985 (True). Similar declines have also been documented in Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, and Virginia. Reasons for this decline in female coaches include (a) historical issues, (b) lack of female role models, and (c) occupational structures. True (1986) explained the decline in female coaches from a historical perspective. In the early 1970s, women were assigned to girls teams as chaperones. The enactment of Title IX and its compliance date in 1978 required a large increase in demand for coaches of girls sports teams. The demand was first met by employing female physical education teachers. These teachers were coaching year round, and the increased workload of teaching and coaching several sports was

28 21 extremely demanding. Therefore, to reduce workload, some coaches gave up coaching one or more sports while others left the coaching field altogether. It has been suggested that having fewer female role models has had a major impact on the decline in the number of female coaches (True, 1986). Acosta and Carpenter (1985) concluded that young female athletes are less likely to consider coaching as a career because of better alternative career choices and, thus, never pursue coaching as a profession. The result is that fewer female coaches are included in the job pool, particularly for senior positions. A survey, conducted in Oregon, found that males coached all of the boys basketball teams and 86.3% of girls basketball teams, while only 13.7% of the girls head coaches were female (Sisley & Capel, 1986). Across the three major sports (basketball, track, and cross country) in Montana, 93% of the boys teams were coached by males, while only 22% of the girls teams were coached by females (Stevens, 1989). These statistics illustrate the relatively small percentage of female role models who are visible to young athletes. Attrition in the coaching ranks has been studied from an organizational and sociological perspective. Knoppers (1987) suggested that women in the coaching profession face different opportunities, resources, and working conditions than their male counterparts. These factors have an impact on the numbers of women entering and leaving the coaching profession. Hart, Hasbrook, and Mathes (1986) explored female turnover rates in the coaching profession based on Prus s career contingencies model. Modeling results showed that current coaches entered the coaching profession to continue their competitive athletic experiences. Former coaches were more likely to reenter into coaching due to pressure from other teachers or the school principal.

29 22 Caccese and Mayerberg (1984) assessed the level of perceived burnout in male and female collegiate coaches at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I women s programs in order to determine whether female coaches differed significantly from male coaches on level of burnout. In this study, the MBI was used to measure burnout levels. Results indicated that females reported higher levels of burnout and felt more frustrated by their jobs than male coaches. Further, females reported significantly higher levels of emotional exhaustion than males as measured by the MBI. More recent studies have also examined the relationship of gender and burnout. Vealey, Udry, Zimmerman, and Soliday (1992) studied dispositional predictors of burnout within a cognitive-affective model of sport burnout. The participants in this study were 381 high school and 467 college coaches. Based on data from the MBI, the results indicated that a substantial percentage of coaches fell into the moderate and high burnout levels. Further, the results showed that female coaches scored higher on the emotional exhaustion subscale than male coaches. Kelley and Gill (1993) noted that females typically report higher levels of burnout than males. In a separate study, Kelley (1994) found that males and females who scored higher in coaching issues and lower in hardiness experienced higher stress levels. Further, both male and female coaches stress appraisals were predictive of all burnout components. In a recent study, Kelley et al. (1999) conducted a gender-by-competition level 2 X 2 MANOVA and reported a significant main effect for gender but not for competition level. Female coaches in this study had a higher tendency in finding coaching issues stressful than did male coaches.

30 23 Prior research studies have contributed to the knowledge base in understanding why coaches enter or leave the coaching profession. Alarmingly, empirical evidence, based on psychological frameworks, does not exist as an alternative means of explaining or predicting motivation and attrition of female coaches. Teacher Burnout Research studies conducted over the past 2 decades have documented high levels of stress experienced by school teachers (Abel & Sewell, 1999; Budinick, 2005; Cox & Brockley, 1984; Cunningham, 1983; Farber, 1984a, 1984b; Tokar & Feitler, 1986; Vargas, 2005; Weisberg & Sagie, 1999). Stress in educational settings can affect a teacher s job satisfaction and his or her overall effectiveness with students. Previous studies have found that prolonged stress can lead to burnout and diminished job satisfaction (Blasé, 1986; Farber, 1984a, 1984b), reduced teacher-pupil rapport and pupil motivation, and decreased effectiveness in meeting educational goals (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978). More recently, Abel and Sewell (1999) studied 51 rural and 46 urban secondary school teachers from 11 school systems in Georgia and North Carolina. This study was one of the first to examine both rural and urban school teachers. Results revealed that urban school teachers experienced significantly more stress from poor working conditions and staff relations than did rural school teachers. Stress associated with student misbehavior and time pressures was significantly greater than stress from poor working conditions and poor staff relations for both rural and urban school teachers. The findings also indicated that poor working conditions and time pressures predict burnout

31 24 for rural school teachers whereas student misbehavior and poor working conditions predict burnout for urban school teachers. Weisberg and Sagie (1999) studied the intentions of female teachers in Israel to leave their current jobs. Twenty-one items on the Pines, Aronson, and Kafry (1981) Burnout Scale were factor analyzed and classified as physical, emotional, or mental. The data were then correlated with intention to leave by using a multiple regression analysis. The results of the study indicated that both physical and mental exhaustion were significant predictors of attrition in the teaching profession. However, the influence of emotional exhaustion and teacher s age was not significant. Several important conclusions emerged from Weisberg and Sagie s study. Teachers who have been on the job for shorter periods of time are more likely to quit their current teaching job because of burnout. In regards to methodology, a concomitant evaluation of the impact of the three burnout dimensions and teachers intentions to leave their jobs provided a more refined assessment on the relative contribution of each individual burnout factor (Weisberg & Sagie). In addition, the authors suggested two approaches: prevention and alleviation; that is, remedies should be introduced after considering the specific type of burnout. It may be more useful to treat burnout among teachers who have been in their jobs for shorter periods of time since alternative employment may be more available to them than to their colleagues who have longer periods of service. High School, College, and Club Coaches Homer Drew (1985), former Head Basketball Coach at Louisiana State University (LSU), suggested several ways to reduce stress levels associated with the coaching

32 25 profession. These included (a) delegate more responsibility to others on the coaching staff, (b) develop outside interests away from the sport being coached, (c) take short trips during the season on off days, (d) take advantage of sabbatical leave if available, (e) surround yourself with positive people, (f) if possible, try not to coach for consecutive seasons, and (g) change environments such as schools or institutions if needed (Drew). Drew s research also yielded one of the first instruments to measure burnout in coaching. It is a questionnaire based on burnout issues where the recipient answers yes or no to a series of 20 questions. Those respondents who score below 11 are labeled as having their coaching flame out, while those who score between 18 and 20 are designated as having a brightly burning flame for coaching. Although this burnout measure has not had the same impact as the MBI, it still is regarded as a valid and reliable tool to measure coaching burnout (Drew). Capel et al. (1987) studied the relationship of role conflict, role ambiguity, and six demographic variables relating to burnout in a sample of head basketball coaches at the high school level. The participants in the study were 235 coaches from six western states. Regression analysis and follow-up canonical correlation analyses indicated that role conflict and role ambiguity were the only two variables consistently related to burnout. Role ambiguity arises when there is no clear explanation of how coaches will be evaluated. Coaches need to know if their win-loss record alone measures performance and, if not, what other criteria are considered in their job evaluation. The findings of this study also indicated that the most frustrating experiences for coaches are unsupportive administrators and biased, unrealistic parents.

33 26 Kelley and Gill s (1993) study examined (a) the relationship of personal/ situational variables (social support, gender, and years of experience) and (b) the relationship of stress appraisal (perceived stress, coaching issues, and role conflict) in a sample of male and female teacher-head basketball coaches from NCAA Division III and National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) colleges. The 99 male participants and 115 female participants completed established measures of burnout, perceived stress, teacher-coach role conflict, and social support along with the MBI. Multivariate analyses supported the hypothesized relationships. Specifically, greater satisfaction with social support, less experience, and gender (females higher) were related to stress appraisal; moreover, all stress appraisal variables were positively related to burnout. Kelley (1994) examined a model of stress burnout among college coaches. There were 249 participants (131 male and 118 female) in her study who were either baseball or softball coaches. Examined in this study was whether coaching issues, social support, hardiness, gender, win/loss record, and stress, could be used to predict burnout. Burnout was defined in this study as a multidimensional syndrome that affects those working in helping professions, such as coaching, in which day-to-day interpersonal interaction is an integral part of their work (Kelley, p. 48). The findings indicated that (a) male and female coaches who scored higher in coaching issues and lower in hardiness experienced higher stress, (b) male coaches who scored lower in social support satisfaction experienced higher stress, and (c) both male and female coaches stress appraisals were predictive of all burnout components.

34 27 Kelley et al. (1999) conducted a study that investigated stress and burnout among collegiate tennis coaches. They examined three alternative models of stress-mediated relationships between personal/situational variables (hardiness, coaching issues, competitive level, gender, trait anxiety, initiating, and consideration of leadership styles) and burnout. Participants for this study were 163 male tennis coaches and 98 female tennis coaches. A gender-by-competition level 2 X 2 MANOVA was conducted and revealed a significant main effect for gender but not for competition level. The women coaches had a higher tendency than the men in finding coaching issues stressful. Structural equation modeling revealed that the stress-mediation model, which featured direct effects of personality/dispositional variables on burnout, accounted for observed relationships in the data more adequately than the other alternatives (Kelley et al.). Descriptive statistics indicated that tennis coaches in this study suffered from levels of burnout similar to helping professionals who are employed in higher education (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Raedeke et al. (2000) conducted a study that linked coaching burnout and commitment based on feelings of burnout and entrapment. Raedeke et al. defined entrapment as when coaches become less attracted to coaching but feel they have to maintain their involvement because (a) they perceive a lack of alternatives to coaching, (b) they have too much time invested to quit, and (c) they think others expect them to continue coaching. The participants in this study were 295 swim coaches who completed Vealey et al. s (1992) survey, which uses scales to assess theoretical determinants of commitment and the exhaustion component of burnout. The MANOVA test revealed significant differences between the three clusters on the factors of exhaustion and