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2 CSHE_A_ fm Page 1 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education Vol. 00, No. 0, Month 09, 1 14 Personal goals and academic achievement among theology students Topi Litmanen a *, Laura Hirsto b and Kirsti Lonka a a Research Centre for Educational Psychology, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland; b Faculty of Theology, University of Helsinki, Finland Taylor CSHE_A_ sgm.80/ Studies Original Society Mr topi.litmanen@helsinki.fi TopiLitmanen and in for Article Higher (print)/ x Francis Research Education Ltd into Higher (online) Education Studying in higher education requires long-term commitment. Previous studies have shown that commitment, perceived competence, intrinsic motivation and work-life orientation are positively related to academic achievement. This study examines the kinds of goals theology students have at the beginning of studies, and whether these goals are related to academic achievement during their first three years at university. Personal project analysis was used to acquire information about first-year students study-related personal goals and related evaluations. The evaluations were factor analysed, and three clusters of students were derived on the basis of the factors: the committed, self-fulfillers and the non-committed. The results show that students who perceived progress, were capable and had intrinsic reasons for their goals advanced more rapidly in their studies. The implication is that variation in academic achievement is at least partly a consequence of variation in orientation towards studying at the beginning of the study period. Introduction Lecturers often wonder whether their students are motivated enough, and if they learn what is intended. All students, however, have personal goals or study objectives. It may be that the target of the motivation differs from the one the lecturer has in mind, and in higher education it may be markedly different from the goal of the institution. Thus the problem may not be a lack of motivation, but a lack of alignment between the student s motivation and the demands of the curriculum. However, there is no single goal for which students strive, and their orientations vary greatly. The context of theology provides an interesting area for studying the meanings students give to their studies and how they see them. Moreover, it inevitably brings in the question of values. Some students want to become priests, others to be teachers, and some have a strong interest in the theological content. Many have strong personal principles and convictions, and there is a clear need to include spiritual aspects in the study of motivation (Emmons 1999). One interesting question is how this diverse group of students varies in their study objectives. Another issue worth investigating is whether there are conflicts between the values of the students and those reflected in the study programme, and if so whether this affects academic achievement. Why study? Study orientations are assumed to reflect students general ideas and mental models of learning and knowledge (for a review, see Lonka, Olkinuora, and Mäkinen 04). 1 3 *Corresponding author. topi.litmanen@helsinki.fi ISSN print/issn X online 09 Society for Research into Higher Education DOI:.80/

3 CSHE_A_ fm Page 2 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM 2 T. Litmanen et al These ideas provide a framework within which they monitor and explain their own and other students learning (Lonka 1997; Vermunt and Vermetten 04). Lonka, Olkinuora, and Mäkinen (04) suggest that it is also useful to measure more general study orientations. The term general refers not only to the cognitive aspects of student learning and motivation in a specific situation, but also to the general personal meaning given to university studies. Mäkinen, Olkinuora, and Lonka (04) found that working-life-oriented students obtained the best results measured in terms of study credits and grades, compared to study-oriented and non-committed students, in a Finnish multidisciplinary university. Furthermore, students intentions to discontinue their studies were related to their study orientation: those who intended to change their major subject or to abandon their studies altogether were most likely to belong to the group of non-committed students. It thus appeared that the general study orientation had concrete consequences in terms of study progress. It seems that a strong working-life orientation is related to rapid progress and successful achievement. On the other hand, a discrepancy between the orientation of the students and of the study programme may result in a loss of interest. We believe that students study-related goals may similarly affect persistence and success in studying. Our aim in this study is, thus, to bridge the gap between findings concerning personal goals and those concerning study orientation. Personal goals are people s self-reported descriptions about what they are currently engaged in or would like to achieve in the future. They are usually conceptualised as projects (Little 1983), strivings (Emmons 1986) or life-tasks (Cantor et al. 1987). It has been shown that evaluating goals as achievable and easy to attain (Nurmi and Salmela-Aro 06; Wiese 07), focusing on tasks in line with environmental demands (Nurmi 1991) and striving for goals for intrinsic reasons are connected with well-being and the experience of achieving these goals. The first aim of this study was to see how students evaluate their goals. In analysing goal structures we explored variations in how they see their study-related goals. Why are some goals more important than others? Motivation has conventionally been classified as intrinsic or extrinsic depending on the reasons behind an action (Deci and Ryan 198). Building on self-determination theory, researchers have similarly classified the reasons behind goal setting as autonomous or external (Ryan and Connell 1989), depending on whether the goals are pursued because they are interesting or because the situation requires it. Autonomous reasons have been shown to be connected with well-being (Kasser and Ryan 1993). Moreover, students who attributed autonomous reasons to their study-related goals dropped out of their courses less often (Vallerand and Bissonette 1992), and experienced them as more enjoyable and considered that they had learned more during them (Black and Deci 00). The second aim of this study was to analyse whether students who evaluate their goals differently also vary in their reasons for striving to achieve them. In addition to determining how students evaluate their goals and why they strive for them, it is also worth considering what the goals are in practice. The content of study-related goals has been studied in terms of achievement goals, which focus on orientation in an achievement situation. Such goals have been divided into categories depending on whether the focus is on performing well in the eyes of others, or on mastering a task (Ames 1992). Another distinction is made between goals that

4 CSHE_A_ fm Page 3 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education 3 focus on performance or avoidance (Elliot, McGregor, and Gable 1999; Pintrich 00). Although these classifications are usable in achievement situations and in the shorter term, other dimensions are needed for classifying university students personal goals covering a longer time frame. If a university student is asked what is his or her most important study goal, the answer rarely hints at avoidance. It might be more relevant to ask to what extent the goals include aspects of working life, study success or learning itself, and whether they are in line with the requirements of the study programme. Studying orientation may bring out an important aspect of reflecting on goal contents. The third aim of this study was to examine what kind of contents students listed for their goals, and whether those who evaluated their goals differently also varied in this respect. Do goals have consequences for academic achievement? Studies focusing on high-school students have revealed that obtaining good grades is related to appraising goals, such as being dependable and responsible, understanding content and doing one s very best as important (Wentzel 1989). Furthermore, valuing study-related goals (Parsons, Adler, and Meece 1984), and especially perceived competence in achieving them (Schunk 1990), is related to obtaining good grades. Elliot, McGregor, and Gable (1999) reported that having goals focusing on performance and avoidance was associated with lower examination grades among high-school students. On the other hand, goals focusing on learning were associated with deep-level processing, persistence and high effort, which in turn also led to higher examination scores. Many other studies support these findings (see Covington [00] for a review). Studies focusing on university students have also revealed connections between goals and academic achievement (see Austin and Vancouver [1996] for a review). Unfortunately, only a few so far have shed light on how study-related personal goals reported by students are connected to academic success in the long run. Nevertheless, there are exceptions. Salmela-Aro and Nurmi (1997) showed that perceived capability, accomplishment and low stress concerning goals were connected to obtaining good grades six months after the goals were reported, and also to the number of courses the students managed to pass during their first year of studying. In another study, university students who tended to procrastinate and avoid challenges evaluated their personal projects as more stressful and difficult (Blunt and Pychyl 0). However, university is a more open environment and less structured than high school and other earlier educational stages. It is, therefore, important to see how students goals relate to how well they progress in their studies. It is worth noting that orientations and goals are not stable characteristics, but change according to the environment and life situation (Nurmi 1991). Lieberman and Remedios (07) found that, when university students advance in their studies, they become more concerned with their grades and expect less enjoyment and learning. However, it also seems that there are, indeed, rather stable orientations that affect academic achievement in the longer term (Mäkinen, Olkinuora, and Lonka 04). The aim in the present study was to find out whether the goals students reported at the beginning of their studies had consequences in terms of their academic achievement

5 CSHE_A_ fm Page 4 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM 4 T. Litmanen et al. The fourth aim of this study was to examine whether students who evaluated their goals differently also varied in their academic achievement. Method Participants The participants were 133 first-year students in the Faculty of Theology at the University of Helsinki. Women made up 71% of the participants, which is slightly higher than the average population at the university (62.4%) or at the faculty (63.0%). The subjects were 18 4 years old (M = 24.1, SD = 7.0). Many students in the Faculty of Theology start their studies at an older age, and the age distribution of the respondents seemed to resemble that of the target group The questionnaire A modified and contextually adapted version of Little s (1983) Personal Project Analysis inventory (PPA) was used in this study. PPA is not a fixed questionnaire, but rather a method used in different ways in different studies (for a review see Little and Gee 07). Interest in personal goals has recently focused more and more on projects concerning specific life domains such as work, the self and social relationships. The focus in this study was on study-related goals, and the questionnaire was adjusted accordingly. In the first part of the questionnaire the participants were asked to list four important personal projects according to the following instructions: People have many kinds of goals, projects or intentions. These personal goals may relate to any life domain, such as school, family, work, education, the opposite sex, health, parents and financial matters. Write down four personal goals you consider important. They were given four numbered lines for their written answers. In the second part of the questionnaire the subjects were asked to write down one goal concerning their education, which could be one they had already mentioned in the first part or a new one. After naming the project they were asked to rate it on nine dimensions using a seven-point scale ranging from not at all (1) to very much (7). The dimensions were similar to those used by Salmela-Aro and Nurmi (1997), and were as follows: importance (How important is this goal to you?); commitment (How committed are you to this goal?); progress (How successful have you been in it so far?); time and effort (How much time and effort have you used related to this goal?); burden (How tiresome or burdensome is this goal?); accomplishment (How likely are you to achieve it?); capability (How capable are you of achieving it?); work (How much have you worked for it?); and stress (How stressful it is for you to carry it out?) The participants were also asked to evaluate their reasons for striving towards the goal on four dimensions using a seven-point scale ranging from not at all for this reason (1) to exactly for this reason (7). The dimensions were as follows:

6 CSHE_A_ fm Page Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Table 1. The characteristics of the goal-related variables (scale 1 7). Studies in Higher Education M SD Min Max Individual variables Progress Time and effort Work Burden Stress Accomplishment Capability Importance Commitment Reasons for pursuing the study-related goal Intrinsic Identified Introjected External Sum variables Importance Capability Achievement Stress external (Because someone else or the situation demands it); introjected (Because I would feel ashamed, guilty or anxious if I didn t); identified (Because I really think this is an important goal to have); and intrinsic (Because it brings me enjoyment and I am truly interested in it). 1 The means and standard deviations for these 13 variables are shown in Table 1. Procedure All the students who started their studies at the Faculty of Theology in 03 (n = 189) were sent a questionnaire during the third month of their first term. Of them, 133 returned the questionnaire, giving a response rate of 70.4%. Those who returned it did not differ from those who did not in age (t(187) = 0.17, p =.876) or gender distribution (χ 2 = 1.171, df = 1, p =.279). Those who returned it, however, had earned more study credits after one (t(180) = 2.1, p =.033), two (t(180) = 2.61, p =.0) and three years of studying (t(180) = 2.003, p =.047), and also had better grades during their first (t(180) = 2.78, p =.006) and third (t(180) = 2.1, p =.033) years of study. The difference was not significant during the second year (t(180) = 1.89, p =.061). Data concerning the respondents received study credits and grade averages were obtained from the university register after each academic year during the first three years of their studies (June 04, June 0 and June 06). At the time of the data gathering one study credit accounted for one week of work ( hours): the system has now changed. 3 4

7 CSHE_A_ fm Page 6 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM 6 T. Litmanen et al Statistical procedures The data was analysed in four stages. First, an exploratory factor analysis was carried out in order to sort out the structure of the evaluations concerning the goals. Secondly, a k-means cluster analysis was conducted to see what kind of variation there was in the evaluations of the study-related goal. Thirdly, the self-reported names of the studyrelated projects were classified in a data-driven manner, and a chi-square test was used to see if the contents of the goals varied in the clusters. Fourthly, one-way analyses of variance were conducted to see whether the students in different clusters varied in terms of evaluation concerning their goals, the reasons behind them and their academic achievement. Tukey s post-hoc tests with a significance level of p <.0 were used to indicate differences between the individual groups. We also calculated effect sizes for each analysis. The eta-square values of.01,.06 and.14 were interpreted as small, medium and large, respectively, as suggested by Cohen (1988). Results Factor analysis for the nine project evaluation questions The nine items concerning the evaluation of study-related projects were submitted to a maximum likelihood factor analysis with a varimax rotation specifying four factors. As Table 2 shows, the first factor reflected achievement, with strong loadings on progress, time and effort, and work. The second factor indicated stress and had strong loadings on burden and stress. The third reflected the capability to complete the goal and had strong loadings on accomplishment and capability. Finally, the fourth factor manifested the importance of the project, and had strong loadings on importance and commitment. The nine-item four-factor solution fitted the data very well. After the factor analysis the ratings of the three items for the achievement scale and the two items for the stress, capability and importance scales were averaged to produce four scores for each participant. The Cronbach alphas for the scales were as follows: achievement (α = 0.71), capability (α = 0.797), stress (α = 0.887) and importance (α = 0.8). The Table 2. Loadings for the four-factor solution for the nine items on goal structure. Factor Achievement Stress Capability Importance Progress Time and effort.90 Work.90 Burden.99 Stress.71 Accomplishment Capability Importance.99 Commitment..34. % of variance Cumulative % of variance Note: Primary loadings are in italic; the secondary loadings are shown only if they exceeded..

8 CSHE_A_ fm Page 7 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education 7 means and standard deviations for these scales are shown in Table 1. These variables were later included in a cluster analysis to sort out the variation in the evaluations. The four items concerning reasons for pursuing the project did not produce consistent factors and were thereafter analysed as single items. The items reflected the intrinsic, identified, introjected and external reasons for pursuing the project. As a result, eight variables in total were used in the analyses. Cluster analysis for the project structure A k-means cluster analysis was conducted in order to explore the variation in the evaluations of the study-related goals. After experimenting with two, three and four clusters, we set the number at three. The two-cluster model combined the first two clusters into one, while the four-cluster model separated four cases from the third cluster to form a small cluster of four cases. The three-cluster model was, therefore, considered to best represent the variance found in the data. The characteristics of the clusters are reported in Table 3. Most variation was found in evaluations of achievement and stress, while there were smaller differences concerning goal importance and capability. The clusters were then named according to their characteristics. Cluster 1 was called self-fulfillers because it reflected low stress and high capability with regard to the study-related project. These students did not appear to experience their goals as stressful, and thought they were capable of achieving them. The cluster also reflected medium values on achievement. Cluster 2 was named committed because it produced high evaluations on all the variables. These students found their study-related goals important and challenging and they felt capable of achieving them. Cluster 3 was named non-committed, and could mostly be described in terms of low achievement and quite a high level of stress. The students in this cluster also gave lower evaluations in terms of the importance of completing the project and of their ability to do so. According to Tukey s post-hoc tests (p <.0), all the differences between the individual groups were significant except on two occasions: the self-fulfillers and the committed students did not differ in their evaluations about the importance of the goal and their capability. As Table 3 shows, all the differences were significant, and all the effect sizes except importance were large. However, because the k-means cluster analysis maximises mean differences, this was to be expected. 1 3 Table 3. The significance testing of the individual scales by cluster. C1: Self-fulfillers (n = 1) Cluster C2: Committed. (n = 41) C3: Non-committed (n = 41) Scale M M M F Effect size Importance **. Small Capability **.21 Large Achievement **.3 Large Stress **.37 Large Note. **p <

9 CSHE_A_ fm Page 8 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM 8 T. Litmanen et al. Table 4. Reasons for pursuing study-related goals by cluster. Cluster Self-fulfillers Committed Non-committed Item M M M F Effect size Intrinsic **.09 Identified *.0 Introjected External Note **p <.001; *p < Reasons for pursuing the goal Because there was no basis on which to perform a factor analysis, items related to reasons for pursuing goals were treated separately. Table 4 shows that only the first two items, which concerned intrinsic and identified reasons, produced statistically significant differences between the groups. According to Tukey s post-hoc test (p <.0), the committed and the self-fulfillers evaluated intrinsic reasons as more important than the non-committed. The self-fulfillers also considered identified reasons more important than the non-committed. 3 4 The contents of the study-related goals The focus of this study was on study-related goals and their appraisal. In the first part of the questionnaire the participants identified four goals concerning different domains of life. According to the preliminary analysis, 6% of the participants reported one, 14% reported two and 3% reported three projects concerning education. No differences were found in terms of how many study-related projects the students in the different clusters reported, but those in the committed cluster had written down a study-related project as their first project more often (2%) than the self-fulfillers (21%) and the non-committed (29%). In the second part of the questionnaire the participants were asked to describe one project concerning their studies, and to evaluate it according to different criteria. Because we could find no earlier studies using this kind of classification, we named these study-related projects in accordance with the data. We then identified clearly separable groups of goals, which we combined into four categories as follows. The qualification category consisted of goals concerning graduation (to graduate as a Master of Theology), and working as a priest (Ordination) or as a teacher (to become a qualified teacher). The study-process category included goals concerning studying and the learning process (to learn how to study, do nicely and enjoy it), learning contents (learning to know the Bible better) and student exchange (exchange studies in Namibia). The study-success category consisted of goals concerning progress with the studies (to get credits during the first term), and balancing studies and family life (to fit in studies and the family). The last category was named other than theology, and consisted of goals related to other fields of study (to be accepted to study education and history) or uncertainty about the adequacy of the subject (to find out whether theology is my thing or not). Another assessor classified all the goals in the four categories according to this classification. Content-analysis reliability measured

10 CSHE_A_ fm Page 9 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education 9 Table. The contents of the study-related goals by cluster. Cluster Category Self-fulfillers % Committed % Non-committed % Qualifications Study process Study success Other than theology % (n = 1) 0% (n = 41) 0 (n = 41) with the percentage rate of agreement between the two independent raters was 91%. This rate of agreement gives a Cohen s kappa (Cohen 1960) of 0.88, which could be considered an excellent level of agreement (Fleiss 1981). Following the formation of the four categories an analysis was conducted in order to determine whether students in the different clusters reported different kinds of contents for their goals. As Table shows, there was variation in goal content (χ 2 = 19.87, df = 6, p =.003). The committed group mostly reported goals related to qualifications or study success, while the self-fulfillers reported goals concerning the study process. Moreover, the non-committed group had more goals related to fields outside of theology. 1 Academic achievement The clusters were also compared to see whether the students varied in terms of academic achievement. No differences were found in grade averages, but there were differences in the number of study credits. The average number of credits achieved in each cluster is presented in Figure 1. Figure 1. Study credits achieved by cluster. The students in the different clusters differed according to the number of credits awarded cumulatively after one (F = 3.84, p =.024, η 2 = 0.0), two (F = 3.74, p = 0.026, η 2 = 0.0) and three years (F = 3.21, p =.044, η 2 = 0.04) of studying. A Tukey s post-hoc test revealed that there was no significant difference between any two of the groups after the first year: at this point the mean difference (MD) between the committed and the non-committed was 8.. After the second and third years, however, the differences were statistically significant: the committed students had achieved more credits than the non-committed after the second (MD = 19.81) and third years (MD = 18.03). Discussion An overview of the findings This study focused on students evaluations of their study-related personal goals. Although they all evaluated their goals as important, there were substantial differences in terms of the ability to achieve them, the progress made thus far and the level of stress involved. We analysed these differences by dividing the students into three clusters, which we named self-fulfillers, committed and non-committed. The noncommitted students evaluated their goal as stressful, and they experienced little 3 4

11 CSHE_A_ fm Page Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM T. Litmanen et al. 1 Figure 1. Study credits achieved by cluster. 3 4 progress in terms of achieving it. The committed students also evaluated the goal they described as stressful, but they were capable of achieving it and were making progress. The self-fulfillers did not consider their described goal stressful and saw themselves as capable of achieving it, but their evaluations of their progress were not as high as among the committed students. The committed and self-fulfillers also had stronger autonomous reasons for pursuing their goals. In terms of goal contents, the groups also varied in their orientation towards their studies. The committed students reported more goals concerning qualifications and study success, while the selffulfillers had more goals concerning the study process. There were also differences in academic achievement among the students in these three clusters. After three years of studying the committed students had achieved, on average, 18 credits more than the non-committed. The master s programme comprised of160 credits and five years of studying altogether. This difference between the two groups reflected a half of one academic year in terms of studying. Methodological reflections The focus of this study was on how theology students saw their study-related personal goals, and how these goals were related to study success. One goal from each participant was identified, and the results reflect the goals that were perceived as most important. Therefore we do not have a comprehensive picture of the full range of personal goals. The sample size was relatively small, consisting only of theology students. It should also be noted that those who returned the questionnaire were better achievers academically. However, the response rate was quite high, and the sample represented the population rather well. All in all, possibly because of the context, it

12 CSHE_A_ fm Page 11 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education 11 was possible to find differing goal evaluations, and to uncover the various corollaries with different orientations towards studying. It is to be assumed that there are variations in the way in which students in other fields evaluate their goals. It may be suggested that the clusters merely indicate a difference in response tendency. Students in the committed cluster gave higher evaluations on all variables than the non-committed, for example. What is noteworthy, however, is that the use of qualitative analysis together with quantitative methods also revealed variation in the self-reported contents of goals in the different clusters. The committed students mainly reported goals focusing on qualifications and study success, while the noncommitted referred more to goals connected with areas outside of theology. Furthermore, the self-fulfillers reported more goals related to the study process; in other words they were focused largely on the learning process and the course contents. It would thus seem reasonable to argue that there is distinct difference in how the students in the different clusters perceived their study-related goals. The results in the light of earlier studies The results of this study support earlier findings about the positive effects of autonomous reasons for striving for a goal on academic achievement (Vallerand and Bissonnette 1992; Sheldon and Elliot 1998). The students in the committed and self-fulfillers clusters evaluated intrinsic reasons more highly than those in the noncommitted cluster. On the other hand, it seems that autonomous reasons in themselves do not explain academic achievement. In this study it was the combination with perceived stress and perceived achievement that produced the most study credits. The results of this study seem to extend earlier findings concerning high-school students to cover those in higher education. Those in the self-fulfillers and committed clusters were progressing towards their goals, and they saw themselves as capable of achieving them. This coincides with findings among high-school students about the relationship between perceived competence and academic achievement (Schunk 1990). On the other hand, the self-fulfillers felt capable of achieving their goals, but were not progressing as well as the committed students. Wentzel (1989) produced comparable results among high-school students, showing that it is particularly the commitment that leads to the best outcomes. The characteristics of the clusters in this study bore a close resemblance to the different study orientations found by Mäkinen, Olkinuora, and Lonka (04): working-life-oriented, study-oriented and non-committed. The differences in the contents of the goals in the different clusters emphasised this likeness. The committed students had more goals focusing on working-life qualifications, while the self-fulfillers focused more on the study process and the non-committed on fields outside of theology. Moreover, although the division between approach and avoidance goals (Elliot, McGregor, and Gable 1999) did not seem to be useful in this study, goals focused on fields other than theology resembled avoidance goals in this particular context. Salmela-Aro and Nurmi (1997) found that a single-factor model of high perceived accomplishment, high progress and strong capability of achieving a goal, together with low levels of perceived stress, were related to passing more courses during the first year of studies. Surprisingly, the results of this study contradict these findings with regard to perceived stress. The students in the committed cluster who had obtained significantly more credits after three years of studying perceived more stress 1 3 4

13 CSHE_A_ fm Page 12 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM 1 12 T. Litmanen et al. concerning their goals than those in the other two groups. There are various probable reasons why the results of the two studies differed. First, Salmela-Aro and Nurmi focused only on courses completed during the first study year: we found that the differences in academic achievement increased during the second and third years. Secondly, stress is not a linear phenomenon. Some amount of stress is needed for commitment, while too much may be harmful (e.g. Kember and Leung 06). The non-committed students also perceived the goal they described as quite stressful, but did not advance in achieving it. It is possible that commitment to studying and to study-related goals produces positive stress, which is beneficial with regard to achievement in an academic environment. Thirdly, personal conviction may be a mediational variable in this particular population; in other words there may be various frictions between spiritual conviction and study orientation (Hirsto and Tirri forthcoming ). Fourthly, the first-year study programme in the Faculty of Theology is well structured. After this the students have more freedom of choice, which may account for the wider differences after the first year. AQ1 3 4 Recommendations for future research It may be that the students in the different clusters in this study found their studies meaningful in different ways, and had different career plans. In other words, their study orientations varied. In Finland, a master s degree in theology gives various opportunities, including serving as a priest, becoming a teacher and engaging in different kinds of expert tasks. Many decisions on future qualifications, however, must be made while studying. The characteristics of the committed cluster suggest that these students probably had clear career plans, and although this was not analysed here, it may be that they had goals focusing on a longer time scale compared to the other students. In other words, their goals might focus more on the time after graduation, while others may be oriented towards one term, or one examination. The time scale of study-related goals is one recommendation for future research. It seems that study-related goals and their implications differ somewhat in the present university context, compared to high school. In the high-school context it has been found that academic achievement is related to perceived competence in terms of reaching goals, and to focusing on assignments and not avoiding challenges. The results of this study support these findings: the students who were committed to their study-related goals achieved the best results. However, there is a slight difference in this university context: in an environment in which external control is quite low and students need to know how to regulate their work, commitment to goals is important in terms of achieving them. All in all this study helps us to understand studying from the student s perspective. Variation in academic achievement and time of graduation are consequences of different kinds of orientation towards studying. This orientation seems to be a rather stable characteristic, which can be detected when students begin their university studies. Tutoring should, therefore, be focused on helping them ascribe meaning to their studies. It might be useful to investigate study-related goals and how they change in the longer term. It seems that college students study-related goals change as they progress in their studies (Lieberman and Remedios 07). In particular, the extent to which they focus on mastering their main subject seems to decrease from the first to the third year. It is possible that, if committed students have a clear vision of what kind

14 CSHE_A_ fm Page 13 Friday, June 19, 09 12:39 PM Studies in Higher Education 13 AQ2 of work they want to do, they will have more stable goals. In conclusion, the most important question this study raises concerns how we can encourage our students to commit to their studies. We need to find definitive and reliable answers if we are to successfully provide them with comprehensive support. References Ames, C Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology 84, no. 3: Austin, J.T., and J.B. Vancouver Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin 1, no. 3: Black, A. E., and E.L. Deci. 00. The effects of instructors autonomy support and students autonomous motivation on learning. Science Education 84, no. 6: 7 6. Blunt, A., and T. Pychyl. 0. Project systems of procrastinators: A personal project-analytic and action control perspective. Personality and Individual Differences 38, no. 8: Cantor, N., J. Norem, P. Niedenthal, C. Langston, and A. Brower Life tasks, selfconcept ideals, and cognitive strategies in a life transition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, no. 6: Cohen, J A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, no. 1: Cohen, J Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Covington, M.V. 00. Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology 1, Deci, E.L., and R.M. Ryan Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press. Elliot, A.J., H.A. McGregor, and S. Gable Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 91, no. 3: Emmons, R.A Personal strivings: An approach to personality and subjective wellbeing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1, no. : Emmons, R.A The psychology of ultimate concerns: Motivation and spirituality in personality. New York: Guilford Press. Fleiss, J.L Statistical methods for rates and proportions. New York: Wiley & Sons. Hirsto, L., and K. Tirri, K. Forthcoming. Motivational approaches to studying theology in relation to spirituality. Journal of Empirical Theology. Kasser, T., and R.M. Ryan A dark side of the American dream: Correlates of financial success as a central life aspiration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 6, no. 2: Kember, D., and D.Y.P. Leung. 06. Characterising a teaching and learning environment conducive to making demands on students while not making their workload excessive. Studies in Higher Education 31, no. 2: Lieberman, D.A., and R. Remedios. 07. Do undergraduates motives for studying change as they progress through their degrees? British Journal of Educational Psychology 77, no. 2: Little, B.R Personal projects: A rationale and method for investigation. Environment and Behavior 1, no. 3: Little, B.R., and T.L. Gee. 07. The methodology of personal projects analysis: Four modules and a funnel. In Personal project pursuit goals, action, and human flourishing, ed. B.R. Little, K. Salmela-Aro, and S.D. Phillips, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Lonka, K Explorations of constructive processes in student learning. Helsinki: Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki. Lonka, K., E. Olkinuora, and J. Mäkinen. 04. Aspects and prospects of measuring studying and learning in higher education. Educational Psychology Review 16, no. 4: Mäkinen, J., E. Olkinuora, and K. Lonka. 04. Students at risk: Students general study orientations and abandoning/prolonging the course of studies. Higher Education 48, no. 2:

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