CERTAINTY OF CAREER CHOICE AT THE BEGINNING OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES GENERAL STRATEGIES AND ATTRIBUTIONS IN ACHIEVEMENT SITUATIONS, AND CAREER MOTIVES

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1 Studies for the Learning Society NO ISSN Baltic Sea Region Association for Research in Adult Education CERTAINTY OF CAREER CHOICE AT THE BEGINNING OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES GENERAL STRATEGIES AND ATTRIBUTIONS IN ACHIEVEMENT SITUATIONS, AND CAREER MOTIVES LAURA HIRSTO Faculty of Theology, University of Helsinki ABSTRACT The focus of this paper is on certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies, and how this relates to students career motives and more general strategies and attributions in achievement situations. The paper sample comprised 137 first-year students of theology, who completed a questionnaire developed on the basis of earlier studies on motives for studying theology and certainty of career choice. The questionnaire included a section on strategies and attributions in achievement situations (SAQ), a section covering the reasons and motives for starting to study theology and a scale measuring uncertainty of career choice. According to the results, uncertainty of career choice related positively to being assured of a place to study, and negatively to having a spiritual calling, a helping orientation and self-fulfillment. In the first year of university studies it also related positively to task avoidance and social pessimism, and negatively to success expectation. Stepwise regression analysis showed that being assured of a place to study, having a spiritual calling and low self-fulfillment explained 57 percent of the total variance. The strategies and attributions the students used in achievement situations were very modest predictors of uncertainty in career choice. Success expectation and task avoidance explained nine percent of the variance. Keywords: career motives; certainty of career choice; higher education; strategies and attributions in achievement situations; theology students Students enter higher-educational institutions in order to study for an academic degree. However, there are many reasons why they fail to achieve this goal. Teaching, studying and learning processes are complex and are affected by many factors. From the systemic perspective, students live in environments defined by economic, technological, political, social and cultural structures (e.g. Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Hurrelmann, 1988). For example, academic education may be considered valuable in a society or one of its sub-cultures, but not in another. Families also have different perspectives and representations in terms of appreciating an academic degree. Society, sub-cultures and the family as well as schools, other institutions and peer -groups constitute the environment in which students construct their representations and find the motivation that drives their career choices. Motivational themes and persistence are thus significant in terms of understanding why students want to start and to continue studying. Duffy and Blustein (2005) argue that individuals who have a strong spiritual relationship with a higher power and are religious through intrinsic motivation tend to be more confident in their ability to make career decisions and are more open to exploring a vari- LAURA HIRSTO, Ph.D. is a senior lecturer in university pedagogy in the Faculty of Theology, the University of Helsinki. DOI /v

2 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 36 ety of career options. There are also empirical indications that spirituality is one of the determinants of career behavior (Lips-Wiersma, 2002) in that it influences career purpose, sense-making and coherence. Faculties of Theology in Finnish universities provide general theological and teacher education, and qualifications for students wishing to become priests in the Evangelical-Lutheran Church. It is therefore likely that many of the students in these faculties have various sacred goals behind their choice of study. Thus, conducting research on theology students offers a good opportunity to combine religious aspects with the study of motivation. The reasons for studying theology incorporate motivational approaches from a wider social perspective, and include the appreciation of a theological education in the students social context, for example. Intrinsic aspects also come into play in terms of how students approach achievement situations generally. It is suggested in the research on certainty of career choice, that interest and capability should be considered at the same time (e.g., Tracey, 2010; Masdonati, Massoudi & Rossier, 2009), and Bandura s self-efficacy theory has been extensively used in conceptualizing capability (cf. Hartung, 2010; Betz, 2007). In order to give a different perspective, capability is conceptualized in this study in terms of strategies and attributions theology students employ in achievement situations. Thus, the study explores students motives for studying theology and their strategies and attributions in achievement situations in relation to certainty of career choice, which is strongly connected to persistence in studying for a degree or profession. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Motivational approaches to the study of theology It has been suggested that, rather than investigating general motivational themes, researchers should take more account of learning contexts (Järvelä & Volet, 2004; Volet & Järvelä, 2001). Moreover, it seems that the quality of student learning as well as the will to continue depend strongly on the interaction between the social and academic goals students bring into the learning situation, the motivating properties of these goals, and the prevailing reward structures (Convington, 2000). The theological context is an especially interesting area in terms of researching motivational approaches. Religious questions are intertwined in the personal world views and values of the students, and thus affect their motivational constructs (cf. Rauste-von Wright, 1986; Emmons, 1999; Hirsto, 2001, 2012). Presumably, students of theology are more likely to confront these issues before and during their studies than students in other disciplines. In fact, Litmanen, Hirsto & Lonka (2010) found that 17 percent of firstyear students of theology named spiritually focused personal projects (e.g. to execute God s calling). However, the naming of such projects seemed to decrease remarkably during the course of theological studies with a scientific orientation (Hirsto, 2012). Studies on career choices and career counseling have identified interest as an influential antecedent (Tracey, 2010; Masdonati, et al. 2009). Interest is operationalized in this study through different kinds of career motives, based on earlier research. Studies on motives for studying theology have produced some classification alternatives. For example, Baylis, Cargas, Hartley, Rowland, Sabri, Stavrakopoulou & Wyatt (2004, 16-17) found four different types of motive for studying theology at the University of Oxford: faith commitment, vocational motives, academic interest, and spiritual inquiry. Moreover, Niemelä (1999) lists seven categories of reasons for applying to study theology. Four of these, a spiritual calling, an instrumental approach, a scientific approach and self-fulfillment, are fairly similar to those reported in Baylis et al. (2004). Niemelä (1999) also includes a helping orientation, being assured of a place to study, and other people s influence. Strategies and attributions in achievement situations Social and emotional processes have attracted little attention in research on motivation. It is not fully understood how students goals, intentions and emotions interact within and across situations (Järvelä & Volet 2004). In terms of peer orientation, Hancock (2004) found in his study of graduate students that differences in achievement among those with high and low peer orientation were not statistically significant, although those with high peer orientation were significantly more motivated to learn. From a longitudinal perspective, it has been suggested that students success expectations predict academic achievement and satisfaction, which in turn increase their subsequent success expectations (Nurmi, Aunola, Salmela-Aro & Lindroos, 2003). Furthermore, there is evidence that task avoidance predicts low academic achievement and dissatisfaction, which again is predictive of subsequent task avoidance (Nurmi et al., 2003). This is in line with the findings reported by Elliot, McGregor & Gable (1999). Achievement strategies may have consequences beyond the school context. For example, according to Aunola, Stattin & Nurmi (2000) the achievement

3 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 37 strategies adolescents deploy are reflected not only in their school adjustment but also in their problem behavior. Elliot and his colleagues (e.g., Elliot & Church 1997; Elliot & Harackiewicz 1996; Elliot et al. 1999) propose a trichotomous achievement-goal framework in which the performance goal is divided into two forms of regulation, approach and avoidance. According to Convington (2000), evidence favors the goal-theory hypothesis that different reasons for achieving, namely approach and avoidance, influence the quality of striving via self-regulation mechanisms. The strategy and attribution questionnaire (SAQ; Nurmi et al. 1995) incorporates this division between avoidance and approach from two perspectives, task and social. It is also suggested that previous high academic performance predicts academic success (McKenzie et al. 2004). However, according to one meta-analysis (Robbins, Huy, Davis, Carlstrom, Lauver & Langley, 2004), psychosocial and study-skill factors make incremental contributions over and above those of socioeconomic status, standardized achievement, and high-school GPA in predicting college outcomes of performance and persistence. Furthermore, the relationships between persistence and academic goals, academic self-efficacy, and academic-related skills were moderate. The best GPA predictors were academic self-efficacy and achievement motivation. Then again, as Bruinsma (2004) found, university students beliefs about their ability to accomplish academic tasks (expectancy) and their goals and beliefs about the importance and interest of the task at hand (value) directly influenced the total number of credits they obtained. Achievement strategies during university studies may have long-term effects in working life. Salmela-Aro, Tolvanen & Nurmi (2009) found that maintaining high and increasing levels of optimism and engaging in task-focused rather than task-avoidance behavior during college predicted subsequent high levels of work engagement 10, 14, and 17 years later. They concluded that career interventions should focus on modifying students achievement strategies in order to increase optimism and reduce task avoidance. Certainty of career choice Certainty of career choice can be considered as one aspect of commitment to a field of study, especially in academic education with a strong professional focus. It has been suggested that students who intend to change their major subject or to abandon their studies most often have non-committed study orientations (Mäkinen, Olkinuora & Lonka, 2004). Furthermore, in the context of problem-based learning, commitment appears to be a potent determinant of achievement and a strong determinant of learning (van Berkel & Schimidt, 2000). However, van der Veen, de Jong, van Leeuwen & Korteweg (2005) found that differences in interest in the subject directly after enrolment and in the second year of study could be explained in terms of level of integration into the study environment, and of other aspects of life that interfere with studying and with the motivation to study. It is therefore important to consider certainty of career choice as a dynamic concept that assumes a different emphasis in interaction with the student s wider social context and study processes. According to Emmons (1999) and McIntosh (1995), spirituality and religiousness can provide people with an ultimate sense of purpose. It has also been argued that religions, as authoritative faith traditions, are systems of information that provide individuals with knowledge and resources for living a life of purpose and direction, and that religion and goals are intertwined in human experience (Emmons & Paloutzian, 2003). It follows from this that students with a strong spiritual calling in the field of theology are likely to be more certain about their choice of career. However, there is a need for a more contextualized understanding of the relationships between motivational approaches and certainty of career choice. The purpose of the study The aim is to enhance understanding of the relationships between the motives to start studying theology, strategies and attributions in achievement situations, and certainty of career choice. The research questions are as follows. 1) What relationships connect the motives to study theology, strategies and attributions in achievement situations, and certainty of career choice? 2) To what extent and how do the motivational approaches to the study of theology at the beginning of university studies explain the certainty of career choice? 3) To what extent and how do the strategies and attributions used in achievement situations at the beginning of theology studies at university explain the certainty of career choice? METHOD Participants A total number of 137 first-year students of theology at the University of Helsinki filled in a questionnaire concerning their motives for starting to study at the Faculty of Theology, certainty of career choice and

4 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 38 Table I. EXAMPLES OF SCALES IN THE STRATEGY AND ATTRIBUTION QUESTIONNAIRE (SAQ) (e.g., Nurmi et al. 1995) Success expectation Task-avoidance Social pessimism Social optimism (e.g., When I get ready to start a task, I am usually certain that I will succeed in it ) (e.g., What often occurs is that I find something else to do when I have a difficult task in front of me ) (e.g., When I meet new people I expect something to go wrong even though I know that I will probably manage quite well ) (e.g., When things do not go smoothly, it is best to talk it over with friends ) motivational approaches to studying. The response rate was 72.5 percent. Of the respondents 70.8 percent were female and 29.2 percent were male. Female students comprised 67.2 percent of the original sample, therefore it seems that they were somewhat more active in responding. The ages of the subjects ranged from 18 to 54 years (M = 24.1, SD = 7.0). Many theology students start their studies at an older age, and the age distribution of the respondents seemed to resemble that of the target group. Measures Motives for studying theology. The questionnaire was adopted from the one developed by Niemelä (1999). The scale measuring motives contained 44 items (see Table II below), derived from a study on student applicants (Niemelä 1999). The respondents rated each item with regard to its importance in their decision to start studying theology. A four-point Likert-type scale was used, ranging from irrelevant (1) to highly relevant (4). A principal component analysis was conducted in order to explore the dimensions and to reduce the number of items in the further analysis. The strategy and attribution questionnaire (SAQ). The participants filled out a short version of the SAQ (for details see Nurmi et al., 1995), which consists of 20 items that form four scales. Table I gives the scales with examples. A five-point (1-5) Likert-type scale was used, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Sums were calculated for the subscales of success expectations, task-avoidance, social pessimism and social optimism. Certainty of career choice. The questionnaire included items related to certainty of career choice ( Another career choice might be more satisfying and closer to my goals, At the moment, I think that my career choice is right, If I could have chosen my field of study freely, I would not have wanted to start studying at the Faculty of Theology ). Principal component analysis was used to explore the dimensions of the motives for starting to study at the Faculty of Theology, on the basis of which sum variables were calculated. The items covering strategies and attributions in achievement situations were summed up on a theoretical basis (Nurmi et al., 1995). These sum variables were then compared with the sum of uncertainty of career choice, first by Pearson correlation, and secondly by means of stepwise regression analysis investigating the extent of the explanatory power of motives, strategies and attributions. RESULTS Motives for studying theology Motives were assessed on 44 items (Table II). The primary motive was that theological questions were interesting (p<.001). Finding the studies interesting ranked second in importance (p<.05), and the possibility for the students to use their own talents and aptitudes ranked third in importance (p<0.001). There were no significant differences among the next four reasons: The possibility to use and realize my predispositions, It is important to me to help people, Given my capabilities and skills I am suited to this field and A desire to help and serve people. The reasons considered the least important were: I was not accepted for my first-choice subject, To make sure that I would at least have a place to study, Influence from my parents and I applied to the Faculty of Theology on impulse. Motivational dimensions The items describing motives for studying theology were factored by means of principal component analysis and Varimax rotation, giving the grounds for the factor analysis (Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin=.789, Bartlett s test of Sphericity: Chi-square=3152,410, df=946, p<.001). On the basis of the criteria of Eigenvalues (>1) the number of factors was 11, although the last four consisted of only one or two items. Therefore, smaller numbers of factors were analyzed in order to find a clear structure.

5 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 39 Table II. FACTOR SOLUTION AND MEANS ON EACH ITEM OF MOTIVES FOR STUDYING THEOLOGY Factor Items M SD To execute God s calling I feel that God has meant me to be in this field As a theologian I can help people to get closer to God To execute God s will As a theologian I can herald the gospel The influence of the teacher of religion at school As a theologian I will be able to make a good living The possibility to get a good job To get an occupation The relevance of this field on the labor market Good salary The possibility to get a recognized position in society The high standing of the field The desire to get an academic education I need a theological education in order to work in my chosen profession The city in which the faculty is located It is important to me to help people A desire to help others in their difficulties As a theologian I can help other people A desire to help and serve people It is a change to work with people instead of things To make sure that I would have at least one place to study In order to get into university, and then to find the field I am interested in It was easier to get into the Faculty of Theology than into many other faculties I was not accepted for my first-choice subject I could pass the entrance examination I applied to the Faculty of Theology on impulse The possibility to use my own talent and aptitude Given my capabilities and skills I am suited to this field My personal characteristics correspond with the demands of the theological field

6 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 40 The possibility to use and realize my predispositions To clarify what I want from the future The tasks of the theologian are pleasing and relevant To clarify my own questions to do with life Someone else s influence The influence of a familiar priest I admired a person in this field The influence of another parish employee The advice of a reliable person The influence of my parents An interest in scientific questions A desire to study religion scientifically An interest in theological questions Interesting studies Sum means SD of sums Note: Principal component analysis, varimax rotation with Kaiser Normalisation, rotation converged in 7 iterations, loadings less than.30 omitted With seven factors the analysis produced a similar structure to that reported in Niemelä s (1999) study, and the factors were named accordingly. These seven factors explained 59.9 percent of the variance. The first factor was entitled Spiritual calling (F1) (Cronbach s α =.900), and included motives such as To execute God s wishes, As a theologian I can help people to get closer to God. The second factor included motives related to the usefulness of a theological degree in the employment market (α =.858). Niemelä (1999) found a similar factor, which she called Instrumental approach (F2), and this was also adopted here. The third factor comprised motives connected to interpersonal and helping interests (α =.895), and was entitled Helping orientation (F3), and the fourth, which included items describing the respondent s interest in getting into university, was entitled Being assured of a place to study (F4) (α =.861). The fifth factor, entitled Self-fulfillment (F5), included motives such as The possibility to use my own talents and aptitude, The possibility to use and realize my predispositions, My personal characteristics correspond with the demands of the theological field and Given my capabilities and skills I am suited to this field (α =.751). The sixth factor consisted of items describing other people s influence on the choice of study field, and was thus entitled Other people s influence (F6) (α =.747). Finally, the seventh factor comprised items suggesting an interest in scientific questions and was therefore entitled Scientific approach (F7) (α =.636). These factors explained 11.3, 10.7, 9.2, 9.1, 7.7, 6.8 and 5.1 percent of the total variance, respectively. The bold-face items in Table II were included in each of the factors to form the sum variables. It appears from the factor means that the students found a scientific approach (F7) the most relevant motive for studying theology at university. Self-fulfillment (F5) and a helping orientation (F3) were also considered important, a spiritual calling (F1) and an instrumental approach (F2) a little less, and other people s influence (F6) and being assured of a place to study (F4) were the least important. Motives for studying theology and uncertainty of career choice The factors describing motivational approaches to studying theology were correlated with the uncertainty-of-career-choice scale(α =.854), which correlated significantly with four of the seven motiva-

7 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 41 tional factors. The strongest correlation, as expected, was with being assured of a place to study. Other correlations were negative, and the strongest of these was with self-fulfillment. Significant negative correlations were also found with a spiritual calling and a helping orientation. Strategies and attributions in achievement situations and uncertainty of career choice The highest mean score (M=3.85, SD=.649) was for social optimism, although the variables included in the success-expectation subscale were rated almost as highly (M=3.80, SD=.556). Task-avoidance (M=2.28, SD=.630) and social pessimism (M=2.15, SD=.704) were rated significantly lower, on average. Success expectations correlated positively with a helping orientation and self-fulfillment, and negatively with other people s influence and uncertainty of career choice. Task -avoidance correlated positively with being assured of a place to study and uncertainty of career choice, and negatively with a spiritual calling and a helping orientation. Social optimism correlated positively with self-fulfillment, whereas social pessimism correlated positively with uncertainty of career choice, and negatively with self-fulfillment. The role of motives, strategies and attributions in explaining certainty of career choice A stepwise regression analysis was conducted in order to address the second and third research questions, separately for career motives, and for strategies and attributions in achievement situations. First, the distribution of responses in all the sum variables were investigated, and depending on the quality the distortions were corrected by means of either LOG(y), ( (max+1)-y), or (y) (Metsämuuronen, 2009). Casewise diagnostics revealed an outlier case, which was removed before further analysis. The criteria for the stepwise regression procedure was F-to-enter<=.05 and F-to-remove >=.10. Table IV gives the results of the stepwise regression analysis of career motives as explanatory factors for uncertainty of career choice. As expected, the strongest factor was being assured of a study place. Self-fulfillment and a spiritual calling were both negatively related with uncertainty, meaning that most uncertain students reported fewer motives related to self-fulfillment and a spiritual calling. This model of three explanatory factors explained 57 percent of the total variance. Table V shows the extent to which strategies and attributions in achievement situations explained uncertainty of career choice. Success expectation was Table III. CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CAREER MOTIVES, STRATEGIES AND ATTRIBUTIONS IN ACHIEVEMENT SITUATIONS, AND CERTAINTY OF CAREER CHOICE F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 SAQ 1 SAQ 2 SAQ 3 SAQ 4 Spiritual calling ** -0.29** 0.27** 0.22* -0.28** * Instrumental approach 0.28** 0.23** 0.20* 0.25** Helping orientation ** 0.34** * -0.23** Being assured of a place to study -0.25** * Self-fulfillment * ** 0.24** Other people's influence * Scientific approach Success expectation -0.30** -0.51** 0.06 Task -avoidance 0.27** Social pessimism -0.35** Social optimism Uncertainty of career choice ** p<.01 * p<.05

8 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 42 Table IV. THEOLOGY STUDENTS MOTIVES FOR STUDYING THEOLOGY IN EXPLAINING UNCERTAINTY OF CAREER CHOICE Predictors B R 2 F Change Sig. F Change t P value (Constant) Being assured of a place to study Factor of self-fulfillment Factor of spiritual calling Dependent: Uncertainty of career choice Table V. THEOLOGY STUDENTS STRATEGIES AND ATTRIBUTIONS IN ACHIEVEMENT SITUATIONS EXPLAINING UNCERTAINTY OF CAREER CHOICE Predictors B R 2 F Change Sig. F Change t Sig. t (Constant) SAQ Success expectation SAQ Task -avoidance Dependent: Uncertainty of career choice negatively related to uncertainty, and explained six percent of the variance. Task avoidance was added to the regression model, which reached significance in explaining an additional three percent. Thus, explanatory power of these two constructs was very low in that hey explained only nine percent of the total variance in uncertainty of career choice. DISCUSSION The aim of this study was to investigate the role of career motives, strategies and attributions in achievement situations in career-choice certainty among first-year university students of theology. The first research question concerned the relationships between career motives, strategies and attributions in achievement situations and certainty of career choice. The motivational factors to studying theology elicited in this study were similar to those found in earlier studies (e.g., Niemelä 1999, Baylis et al. 2004). Certainty of career choice seems to be positively related to a spiritual calling, a helping orientation and self-fulfillment, and negatively related to merely wanting to be assured of a place to study. These Finnish theology students most often reported social optimism in achievement situations, and evaluated variables included in the success-expectation subscale almost as highly. According to the results, on the one hand students who reported higher levels of self-fulfillment as a motive were most certain of their career choice, and those with a higher spiritual calling and a helping orientation also seemed to be fairly certain. On the other hand, success expectations correlated positively with a helping orientation and self-fulfillment. Taskavoidance also correlated negatively with a spiritual calling and a helping orientation. Tracey (2010) argued on the basis of his results that career counseling should focus on interest and self-efficacy, and especially on their agreement (or alignment), since those are the factors that support career choice certainty. It thus seems that self-fulfillment and a helping orientation constitute desirable motives for starting to study theology, given the correlation with success expectations. A spiritual calling, in this respect, would also seem to be a suitable motive. Although it does not quite reach significance in correlation with success expectations in this data, it is negatively related to task -avoidance. The second research questions concerned the extent to which motivational approaches to studying theology in the early stages explained certainty of career choice. Three motivational factors produced a reasonable level of explanation for uncertainty of career choice. As expected, being assured of a study place was the best predictor. This may well be a typical Finnish feature in that students finishing their secondary education and passing the matriculation examination have to apply for university programs and majors through a separate entrance examination. The acceptance rates vary, and some students may wish to take advantage of this. As was to be expected given

9 L. HIRSTO Certainty of career choice at the beginning of university studies 43 the correlative relation between certainty and career motives, the next strongest predictor of certainty of career choice was self-fulfillment. A spiritual calling also increased the explanatory rate significantly. The third research question concerned the extent to which the strategies and attributions used in achievement situations in the early stages of theology studies at university explained certainty of career choice. The very low explanatory power of general strategies and attributions in achievement situations was somewhat surprising. Given the results of earlier research and the emphasis laid on both interest and self-efficacy as meaningful factors in choosing a career (Tracey, 2010; Masdonati, Massoudi & Rossier, 2009), one might have assumed that success expectation would be a slightly stronger predictor of career choice certainty. Although social pessimism was significantly related to uncertainty, it did not hold any significant explanatory power. However, this tendency is in line with Hancock s (2004) results, showing a relation between a strong peer-orientation and better learning motivation. Social pessimism and task -avoidance also correlated significantly in this study. According to Nurmi & Salmela-Aro (1997) pessimistic-avoidance strategies in social situations predict loneliness later among university students, and in turn, the lonelier the students are, the more they use pessimistic-avoidance strategies later on. The present study concerned one student group, but a personalized approach to understanding the role of these problematic strategies among theology students might bring some useful insights in the future research. Longitudinal research would be needed to further understanding of the relationships between motivational approaches to the study of theology, strategies and attributions in achievement situations and certainty of career choice. It should also be stressed that motivational approaches may change and develop during university studies, as may learned strategies and attributions in achievement situations. Furthermore, the effects of motives on behavior are presumably mediated through various social-cognitive constructs such as goals and regulatory strategies (Pintrich 2003). Further research should investigate the role of these potential mediators in this theological context, too. Certainty of career choice could also develop as students engage in their theological studies. In this respect, the Faculty of Theology could also support these kinds of productive processes throughout the courses of study by means of tutoring and career counseling, for example. According to Honkimäki, Tynjälä & Valkonen (2004), the potential of interactive pedagogy in terms of helping students with motivational problems should also be considered in the faculty. Stanbury (2010) put forward a similar suggestion, highlighting the need for career educators and the wider academic community to work together for the benefit of students. Limitations of the study This study was limited to investigating the relationships between motives for studying theology, strategies and attributions in achievement situations, and certainty of career choice in the beginning of university studies of theology. In order to meet the demands for contextualization in motivational research (Järvelä & Volet 2004; Volet & Järvelä, 2001; Convington 2000), the instruments were highly contextualized, and therefore the results cannot be directly generalized to other university-student populations. However, the relationship between strategies and attributions in achievement situations and certainty of career choice among theology students may give interesting insights into career certainty among university students in general. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Joan Nordlund for her help with the language.

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