Chapt er 4 Reinforc e m e n t

Transcription

1 hapt er 4 Reinforc e m e n t hapt er Outlin e Defining Reinforce m e n t Positive and Negative Reinforce m e n t Social versus Automatic Reinforce m e n t Esca p e and Avoidan c e ehaviors ondition e d and Uncondition e d Reinforc er s Factors Influencing the Effectiven e s s of Reinforce m e n t Immediacy ontinge n cy Motivating Operations Individual Differenc e s Magnitu d e of the Reinforc er Schedules of Reinforce m e n t Fixed Ratio Variabl e Ratio Fixed Interv al Variabl e Interv al Reinforcing Different Dimensions of ehavior oncurrent Schedules of Reinforce m e n t hapter Summary Key Terms Practic e Test Appendix A Appendix hapter 4, Quiz 1 hapter 4, Quiz 2 hapter 4, Quiz 3 Idea s for las s Activitie s 1. Provide everyd a y exam ples of behavior and conse q u e n c e s that illustrat e positive reinforce m e n t, negative reinforce m e n t, or neither and have students identify the exam ples as positive reinforce m e n t, negative reinforce m e n t, or neither. Have them explain the justification for their answer. Alternatively, ask student s to provide novel, everyd a y exa m ples of positive and negative reinforce m e n t 2. Provide everyd a y exam ples of different sched ules of reinforce m e n t (for exa m ple, piece rate pay as an exam ple of a FR schedule, telem ark eting calls as an exam ple of a VR sched ule, checking for the updat e on scores that are present e d on the screen every 10 minutes during football gam e s on television as an exa m ple of a FI sched ule, and checking e- mail for mess a g e s as an exa m ple of a VI schedule), have students identify the schedule of reinforce m e n t in the exa m ples, and justify their answers. Alternatively, have student s provide novel, everyd a y exa m ples of each sched ule of reinforce m e n t. 33

2 Answ er s to Practic e Test Que s ti o n s 1. Reinforce m e n t is defined as a process in which a behavior is strength e n e d by the immediat e conseq u e n c e that reliably follows its occurrenc e. 2. The reinforcer provided to Thorndike s cat was food. The behavior that resulted in the reinforcer was hitting the lever which opene d the door. The result of the reinforce m e n t was that the cat s behavior was strength e n e d. Each time Thorndike put the hungry cat inside the cage it took less time for the cat to hit the lever that open e d the door. 3. To say the a behavior is strength e n e d mean s that the behavior is more likely to occur again in the future or that it will increas e in frequency, duration, intensity, or speed in the future. 4. A behavior that is strength e n e d through the process of reinforce m e n t is called an operant behavior. An operant behavior acts on the environm e n t to produc e a conseq u e n c e and in turn is controlled by, or occurs as a result of, its immediat e conseq u e n c e. In Skinner s experim e nt s, the rat s behavior of pressing a lever in the experim e nt al cham b er was reinforc e d with food. 5. See Figure 4.2 for an exam ple of a graph which shows the effect of reinforce m e n t. 6. Positive reinforce m e n t is when (a) the occurrence of a behavior (b) is followed by the addition of a stimulus or an increas e in the intensity of a stimulus (c) which results in the strengt h e ning of the behavior. 7. Negative reinforce m e n t is when (a) the occurrence of a behavior (b) is followed by the removal of a stimulus or a decre a s e in the intensity of a stimulus (c) which results in the strengt h e ning of the behavior. 8. Kevin s behavior of giving his girlfriend a compliment was positively reinforced with a kiss, and ther efor e, Kevin was mor e likely to com pli m e n t his girlfriend in the future. 9. onnie s behavior of reaching over and turning off her alarm clock was negatively reinforced by the remov al of the aversive buzzing, thus strengt h e ning her behavior of turning off the clock whe n it buzz e s. 10. Positive and negative reinforce m e n t are alike in that both result in the behavior being more likely to occur in the future. The difference between the two is that in positive reinforce m e n t, a respons e produc e s a stimulus (a positive reinforcer) and in negative reinforce m e n t, a respons e removes or prevents the occurrenc e of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus). 11. Negative reinforce m e n t increas e s or strength e n s a behavior. Punishm e n t decre a s e s or weake ns a behavior. 12. In negative reinforce m e n t, the stimulus that is removed or avoided following the behavior is called an aversive stimulus. The buzzer on the alarm clock is an aversive stimulus that is removed when you turn off the alarm clock. 13. An unconditioned reinforcer (also called a primary reinforcer) is a reinforcer that requires no training or conditioning to develop as a reinforcer. Examples of uncondition e d positive reinforcers are food, water, and sexual stimulation. Examples of unconditioned negative reinforcers are pain, cold, heat, or other discomforting or aversive stimulation. 34

3 14. A conditioned reinforcer (also called a second ary reinforcer) is a stimulus that was once neutral but beca m e establish e d as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer or an alread y established conditioned reinforcer. For exam ple, a parent s attention is a conditione d reinforcer becau s e it has been paired with the delivery of food, warmth, and other reinforcers. Money is a conditione d reinforcer becau s e it has been paired with a wide variety of unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers. 35

4 15. The five factors that influenc e the effectiven e s s of reinforce m e n t are (1) the immediacy and (2) consistency of the conse q u e n c e, (3) Motivating operations, (4) individual differenc e s, and (5) magnitud e of the conseq u e n c e. 16. ontiguity refers to the temporal relationship between a response and a reinforcer. For a conse q u e n c e to be most effective as a reinforcer, it should occur immediat ely after the behavior occurs. The longer the delay betwe e n the respons e and the conseq u e n c e, the less effective the conse q u e n c e will be becaus e the contiguity or connection between the two is weaken e d. 17. A contingency exists between the response and the conse q u e n c e when the respons e produc e s the conseq u e n c e (the reinforcer) and the conse q u e n c e does not occur unless the response occurs first. Reinforce m e n t is most effective when the reinforcer is continge n t on the behavior. 18. An establishing operation is an event that makes a reinforcer more potent. For exa m ple, food will be a more powerful reinforcer when a person hasn t eaten all day. Water will be a more potent reinforcer for someon e who has just run a race than for someon e who has been sitting on the porch drinking iced tea. An abolishing operation is an event that makes a reinforcer less potent. For exa m ple, completing a large meal makes food less reinforcing at that tim e. 19. A stimulus can be said to function as a reinforcer for an individual if the behavior which produc e d the stimulus increas e s (is strength e n e d ) in the future. 20. A continuous reinforce m e n t sched ule (RF) is one in which each occurrence of a response is followed by a reinforcer. In an intermitte nt reinforce m e n t sched ule, each occurrence of the behavior is not followed by a reinforcer. 21. A RF sched ule is used when a person is learning a behavior or enga gin g in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learned the behavior, an intermittent reinforce m e n t sched ule is used so that the person continu es to enga g e in the behavior. 22. In fixed ratio (FR) and variable ratio (VR) schedules, the delivery of the reinforcer is based on the number of respons e s that occur. In a fixed ratio schedule of reinforce m e n t, a specific or fixed numb er of respons e s must occur before the reinforcer is delivered. For exa m ple, if a rat s behavior of bar pressing is being reinforced on a fixed ratio 10 (FR 10) sched ule, the rat will receive a reinforcer after every 10th bar press. In a variable ratio sched ule, the number of responses required for reinforce m e n t varies each time around an averag e number. For exa m ple, if a rat s behavior of bar pressing is being reinforced on a variable ratio 10 (VR 10) schedule, the rat will receive a reinforcer after an avera g e of 10 responses. 23. In fixed interval and variable interval sched ules, a response is reinforced only after an interval of time has passed. In a fixed interval (FI) sched ule, the interval of time is fixed, or stays the sam e each time. For exa m ple, if a pigeon s behavior of key pecking is being reinforced on a fixed interval 20 seconds (FI 20 sec) schedule of reinforce m e n t, the first key peck that occurs after 20 seconds has elapse d will result in the reinforcer. Like an FI sched ule, in a variable interval (VI) schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an interval of time has elapsed. However, in a VI sched ule the interval varies around an avera g e time. For exam ple, if a pigeon s behavior of key pecking 36

5 is being reinforced on a variable interval 20 second sched ule (VI 20 sec), the first key peck that occurs after the interval has elapse d will be reinforced. Sometim e s the interval will be more than 20 seconds and other times it will be less than 20 seconds, but the avera g e length is 20 seconds. 24. Ratio sched ules are more likely to be used in training progra m s, becaus e they produce higher and more steady rates of respon ding. 37

6 25. When two or more sched ules of reinforce m e n t are in effect at one time for different behaviors, they are referred to as concurre nt sched ules of reinforce m e n t. For exa m ple, as a student, you are able to choose between studying, watching T.V., eating, and numero us other activities, each reinforced on a different schedule. 26. a. positive; b. negative; c. negative; d. positive; e. positive; f. negative Answ er s to Quizze s Quiz 1 1. operant 2. less 3. positive 4. negative 5. immediacy, contingency, motivating operations, individual differenc e s, magnitude of the reinforcer 6. conditioned 7. concurre nt sched ules of reinforce m e n t 8. continuous reinforce m e n t or RF 9. variable ratio or VR 10. fixed interv al or FI Quiz 2 1. reinforcer 2. more 3. negative 4. positive 5. negative 6. acquisition 7. aversive 8. strengt h e n or increas e 9. fixed ratio or FR 10. variable interval or VI Quiz 3 1. reinforce m e n t 2. continuou s reinforce m e n t or RF 3. intermittent reinforce m e n t 4. more 5. less 6. they both strengt h e n or increas e behavior 7. aversive stimulus 8. reinforc er 9. variabl e interv al or VI 10. variabl e ratio or VR Test Que s ti o n s 1. A behavior occurs and is immediately followed by a consequence that results in the increased likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future. This process is called: a) reinforcement b) conditioning c) a reinforcer d) operant behavior A 2. Andy answers a question in class, and is praised by the teacher. As a result, Andy is more likely to answer questions in class. Andy s behavior of answering questions in class is referred to as behavior. a) controlled b) natural c) operant d) situational 3. Mary takes out the garbage and, as a result, her parents let her watch her favorite television show. Mary is then more likely to take out the garbage when asked. eing able to watch her favorite television show is a for her behavior of taking out the garbage. a) reinforcer b) reinforcement c) contingency d) dependent variable A 38

7 4. Which of the following processes strengthen a behavior? a) positive reinforcement b) punishment c) negative reinforcement d) A and D 5. Tommy pets a strange dog and is immediately bitten. In behavior modification, getting bitten is referred to as the for the behavior of petting the dog. a) punishment b) reinforcement c) consequence d) antecedent 6. arry throws the football into the stands after scoring a touchdown, and is cheered by the fans. As a result, arry is more likely to throw the ball into the stands whenever he scores a touchdown. This is an example of: a) negative reinforcement b) positive reinforcement c) punishment d) satiation 7. Timmy swears whenever his mom makes broccoli for dinner. Timmy s mom always sends him to his room without dinner when he swears. As a result, Timmy is more likely to swear when his mom makes broccoli. This is an example of: a) positive reinforcement b) punishment c) negative reinforcement d) extinction 8. An object or event that can be detected by the senses is referred to as a: a) reinforcer b) punisher c) stimulus d) behavior 9. The stimulus presented following the behavior in positive reinforcement is called: a) a conditioned stimulus b) a negative reinforcer c) a positive reinforcer d) an aversive stimulus 39

8 10. The stimulus removed or avoided following the behavior in negative reinforcement is referred to as the stimulus. a) natural b) unconditioned c) aversive d) conditioned 11. In which of the following processes is the behavior more likely to occur in the future? a) positive reinforcement b) positive punishment c) negative punishment d) A and A 12. In behavior modification, reinforcement is defined by its effect on behavior. This is referred to as: a) the Premack Principle b) an operational definition c) a functional definition d) a unique relationship 13. Which of the following is NOT a question to ask when trying to decide whether a situation represents positive or negative reinforcement? a) what is the behavior? b) did the stimulus appear to be pleasant? c) was the stimulus added or removed? d) was the behavior more likely to occur? 14. On weekends, Laura comes home on time so that she is not grounded by her parents. oming home on time in order to avoid being grounded is an example of: a) positive reinforcement b) escape behavior c) avoidance behavior d) punishment 15. Andrew wants to play baseball with his friends. efore Andrew can play, his parents tell him that he has to clean his room, which he hates to do. Requiring Andrew to clean his room before he can play baseball with his friends is an example of: a) punishment b) the Premack Principle c) escape behavior d) negative reinforcement 40

9 16. Whenever Matt makes a 3 point shot, his basketball coach makes him run one less lap in practice. As a result Matt is more likely to hit 3 point shots. This is an example of: a) the Premack Principle b) respondent behavior c) negative reinforcement d) positive reinforcement 17. Which of the following is NOT an example of an unconditioned reinforcer? a) food b) water c) money d) escape from extreme heat 18. Money is an example of a(n): a) conditioned reinforcer b) conditioned stimulus c) unconditioned reinforcer d) unconditioned stimulus A 19. Which of the following influences the effectiveness of reinforcement? a) immediacy b) contingency c) establishing operations d) all of these D 20. Whenever Tony puts money into a pop machine, he gets a can of pop. Tony never gets pop out of the machine when he does not put money in. This is an example of existing between putting money in the machine and getting pop out. a) an establishing operation b) a contingency c) a negative relationship d) a functional definition 21. eth has been hiking in the desert all day and, as a result, is dying for a glass of water. The increase in the reinforcing value of water due to hiking in the desert is referred to as: a) satiation b) deprivation c) conditioning d) reinforcement 41

10 22. John just ate a big Thanksgiving dinner. When John is offered a piece of his favorite pie he declines. The decrease in the reinforcing value of pie for John is an example of: a) deprivation b) satiation c) reinforcement d) extinction 23. Which of the following are factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement? a) different reinforcers work for different people b) larger reinforcers are generally more effective c) A and d) none of the above 24. Nicole s teacher praises her for every math problem that she completes. This is an example of a(n) reinforcement schedule. a) intermittent b) fixed c) continuous d) interval 25. Tim is just learning to read. Which reinforcement schedule would be the most effective for him? a) continuous b) intermittent c) fixed d) interval A 26. An intermittent schedule of reinforcement is most effective for a behavior. a) learning b) maintaining c) changing d) all of these 27. Tom s supervisor tells him that for every 10 cars Tom sells he will get a $500 bonus. This is an example of a reinforcement schedule. a) fixed interval b) fixed ratio c) variable interval d) variable ratio 42

11 28. A telemarketer has to make a certain number of calls before a sale is made. However, the telemarketer does not know the exact number of calls that will be required in order to make a sale. This is an example of a schedule of reinforcement: a) fixed ratio b) variable ratio c) fixed interval d) variable interval 29. In a reinforcement schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response following an average of X amount of time. a) fixed interval b) variable interval c) fixed ratio d) variable ratio 30. Which schedule of reinforcement produces high, steady rates of responding with very little interruption after delivery of the reinforcer? a) fixed ratio b) fixed interval c) variable ratio d) variable interval 31. All the reinforcement schedules that are in effect for a person s behavior at one time are referred to as schedules of reinforcement. a) concurrent b) overlapping c) simultaneous d) mixed A 1. is the research e r who first demonstr at e d the Law of Effect. Thorndike 2. In Skinner s experim e nt s, a rat press e d a lever and received food. This process strengt h e n e d lever pressing. The food is a(n). The lever pressing is a(n). The process is called. reinforcer; behavior/operant behavior; reinforcement 3. A(n) is a behavior strength e n e d through the process of reinforce m e n t. operant 4. The conse q u e n c e that strength e n s an opera nt behavior is a(n). reinforcer 5. In the Premack principle, the opportunity to enga g e in a(n) is used as a reinforcer for a low probability behavior. high probability behavior 43

12 6. A(n) increas e s the potency of a reinforcer. establishing operation 7. A(n) sched ule of reinforce m e n t is used when a person is learning a new behavior. continuous reinforcement 8. In reinforce m e n t, a stimulus is remov e d following the behavior to strengt h e n the behavior. negative 9. In reinforce m e n t, a stimulus is present e d following the behavior to strengt h e n the behavior. positive 10. When a person has just had a large amount of a reinforcer, will the reinforcer be more or less effective at that time? What is this process called? less; satiat e d 11. When a person has not experienc e d a reinforcer for a long time, will the reinforcer be more or less effective? What is this process called? more; deprivation 12. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered after X numb er of responses is. fixed ratio 13. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered for the first respons e occurring after X amount of time is. fixed interval 14. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered for the first respons e occurring after X amount of time on the averag e is. variable interval 15. A sched ule of reinforce m e n t in which the reinforcer is delivered after X numb er of responses on the avera g e is. variable ratio 1. T F A reinforcer works best when it follows the behavior immediat ely. T 2. T F Negative reinforce m e n t decre a s e s a behavior in the future. F 3. T F An establishing operation is an event that makes a reinforcer more potent at a particul ar tim e. T 4. T F A conditioned reinforcer is a reinforcer that is effective without any prior learning 44

13 or conditionin g. F 45

14 5. T F An uncondition e d reinforcer is a reinforcer that is effective without any prior learnin g or conditionin g. T 6. T F If an aversive stimulus is remov e d following the behavior, the behavior is less likely to occur in the futur e. F 7. T F If a positive reinforcer is delivered following the behavior, the behavior is more likely to occur in the futur e. T 8. T F In a Fixed Interval schedule, a reinforcer is delivered after a period of time has elaps e d. F 9. T F In a Fixed Ratio sched ule, a reinforcer is delivered after X number of responses on the averag e. F 10. T F In negative reinforce m e n t, an aversive stimulus is remov e d following the behavior and the behavior is more likely to occur in the future. T 1. Define reinforce m e n t. Reinforcement is defined as a process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequences that reliably follows its occurrence. 2. In positive reinforce m e n t, what happ e n s immediat ely following the occurrenc e of the behavior? In positive reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the addition of a stimulus or an increase in intensity of a stimulus which results in the strengthening of the behavior. 3. In negative reinforce m e n t, what happ e n s immediat ely following the occurrence of the behavior? In negative reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus which results in the strengthening of a behavior. 4. What is an aversiv e stim ul us? In negative reinforcement, the stimulus that is removed or avoided following the behavior is called an aversive stimulus. 5. How does escap e behavior differ from avoidance behavior? In escape behavior, the occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred. In avoidance behavior, the occurrence of the behavior prevents the presentation of an aversive stimulus. 6. Draw a frequency graph showing the effect of reinforce m e n t on the frequency of a behavior. See Figure 4.2 in the book for an example of a graph showing the effects of reinforcement on the frequency of a behavior. 46

15 7. What are a couple exa m ples of unconditioned reinforcers? A couple examples of unconditioned positive reinforcers are food, water, and sexual stimulation. A couple examples of unconditioned negative reinforcers are pain, cold, heat, or discomforting or aversive stimulation. 47

16 8. What are three exa m ples of gener alized conditioned reinforcers? Examples of generalized conditioned reinforcers are parent s attention, money, and grades. 9. Identify the five factors that influence the effectiven e s s of reinforce m e n t. The five factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement are immediacy, consistency of the consequence, motivating operations, individual differences, and magnitude of the reinforcer. 48