Module 3.2 SOCIAL THEORIES OF LEARNING

Transcription

1 Module 3.2 SOCIAL THEORIES OF LEARNING Site: University of the Philippines Open University: Course: EDS_103_1T_ Theories of Learning Book: Module 3.2 SOCIAL THEORIES OF LEARNING Printed by: Reyes Maria Joanna Rose Date: Sunday, 4 October 2015, 9:43 AM 1/3

2 SOCIAL THEORIES OF LEARNING What is social learning? What are the core concepts in social learning theory? How does modeling operate in the learning context? How can teachers use social learning to their advantage? Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying the four sections of this module, you should be able to: - discuss the basic assumptions that underlie the four major learning theories behavioral, social, constructivist, and cognitive; - propose theoretically principled explanations for the way students respond to learning events; - use core concepts of learning theories to analyze teaching- learning events and predict learning outcomes; - propose theoretically justified approaches to improve pedagogy. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. 2/3

3 Table of contents 1 INTRODUCTION; Objectives 2 What is social learning? 2.1 Will you? 2.2 Factors affecting observational learning and performance 2.3 What constitutes good models for social learning? 3. What are the core concepts in social learning theory? 4. What is self- efficacy and what is its role in social learning? 5. THEORY TO PRACTICE 6. DISCUSSIONS 7. Suggestions for your e- Journal 8. An e- Journal ACTIVITY: Models and Mentors in My Life 3/3

4 1 INTRODUCTION; Objectives What is social learning? What are the core concepts in social learning theory? How does modeling operate in the learning context? How can teachers use social learning to their advantage? Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying the four sections of this module, you should be able to: - discuss the basic assumptions that underlie the four major learning theories behavioral, social, constructivist, and cognitive; - propose theoretically principled explanations for the way students respond to learning events; - use core concepts of learning theories to analyze teaching- learning events and predict learning outcomes; - propose theoretically justified approaches to improve pedagogy. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence 1/30

5 2 What is social learning? Guide questions: - Define vicarious learning. - Describe the different types and give examples from your personal experience/observation. - What factors influence the effectiveness of models to influence behavior? - Name some applications in academic settings. a.) A general contention of the social learning theory is that people learn by watching and imitating others, a concept referred to as observational learning or modeling. Baby Dancing to Beyonce - Funny /30

6 - Here s a simple definition by example : - Watch the video by Hollie Hancock (About.com) for a quick introduction about Bandura s social learning theory. OVERVIEW OF THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ( of- the- Social- Learning- Theory.htm) - Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory suggests that people learn from one another via observation, imitation, and modeling. Bandura s Social Learning Theory explains human behavior in terms of cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences. - everything around us has an impact on how we think and behave. - Read What Is Observational Learning? (Kendra Cherry in About.com) WHAT IS OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING? ( Is- Observational- Learning.htm) OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - shaping, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement. - it tends to be the most common during childhood as children learn from the authority figures and peers in their lives - plays important process as it teaches how to behave and responds to others by observing people around us interacting with each other. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING According to Bandura's research, there are a number of factors that increase the likelihood that a behavior will be imitated. We are more likely to imitate: - People we perceive as warm and nurturing - People who receive rewards for their behavior - When you have been rewarded for imitating the behavior in the past - When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities - People who are in a position of authority over our lives - People who are similar to us in age, sex, and interests - People who we admire or who are of a higher social status - When the situation is confusing, ambiguous, or unfamiliar Observational learning is often linked to negative or undesirable behaviors, but it can also be used to inspire positive behaviors. Television programming has been used to promote a range of healthy behaviors in areas throughout the world. 3/30

7 Observational learning can be a powerful learning tool. When we think about the concept of learning, we often talk about direct instruction or methods that rely on reinforcement and punishment. But a great deal of learning takes place much more subtly and relies on watching the people around us and modeling their actions. This learning method can be applied in a wide range of settings including job training, education, counseling, and psychotherapy. b.) In his well- known Bobo Doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated how adverse behaviors may be learned through modeling. bobo doll experiment - Watch the bobo doll experiment (YouTube), Read the article, Bobo Doll Experiment (Kendra Cherry in About.com) BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT ( doll- experiment.htm) - Aggression lies at the root of many social ills ranging from interpersonal violence to war. Bandura made several predictions about what would occur: 1. He predicted that children who observed an adult acting aggressively would be likely to act aggressively even when the adult model was not present. 2.The children who observed the non- aggressive adult model would be less aggressive than the children who observed the aggressive model; the non- aggressive exposure group would also be less aggressive than the control group. 3.Children would be more likely to imitate models of the same- sex rather than models of the opposite- sex. 4. Boys would behave more aggressively than girls. 4/30

8 Results The results of the experiment supported three of the four original predictions. 1. Children exposed to the violet model tended to imitate the exact behavior they had observed when the adult was no longer present. 2.Bandura and his colleagues had also predicted that children in the non- aggressive group would behave less aggressively than those in the control group. The results indicated that while children of both genders in the non- aggressive group did exhibit less aggression than the control group, boys who had observed an opposite- sex model behave non- aggressively were more likely than those in the control group to engage in violence. 3. There were important gender differences when it came to whether a same- sex or opposite- sex model was observed. Boys who observed adult males behaving violently were more influenced than those who had observed female models behaving aggressively. Interestingly, the experimenters found in the same- sex aggressive groups, boys were more likely to imitate physical acts of violence while girls were more likely to imitate verbal aggression. 4. The researchers were also correct in their prediction that boys would behave more aggressively than girls. Boys engaged in more than twice as many acts of aggression than the girls. Criticisms As with any experiment, the Bobo doll study is not without criticisms: - Because the experiment took place in a lab setting, some critics suggest that results observed in this type of location may not be indicative of what takes place in the real world. - The study might suffer from selection bias. All participants were drawn from a narrow pool of students who share the same racial and socioeconomic background. This makes it difficult to generalize the results to a larger, more diverse population. - Since data was collected immediately, it is also difficult to know what the long- term impact might have been. - Acting violently toward a doll is a lot different that displaying aggression or violence against another human being in a real world setting. 5/30

9 - It has also been suggested that children were not actually motivated to display aggression when they hit the Bobo doll; instead, they may have simply been trying to please the adults. - Some critics argue that the study itself is unethical. By manipulating the children into behaving aggressively, they argue, the experimenters were essentially teaching the children to be aggressive. THINK: Should we reconsider the ways that children are being exposed to television, movies, video games, and other media? a.) What is vicarious learning? Vicarious learning occurs when people observe the consequences for others' actions and adjust their own behavior accordingly. Read: Observational Learning: Learning by Watching Others No longer available online BANDURA- SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (SAUL MCLEOD, 2011) ( Bandura (1977) believes that humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behavior and its consequences. Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work. MODELS - individuals that are observed - provide examples of behavior to observe and imitate 1. The child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the same sex. 2. The people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model s behavior and the consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior. 6/30

10 3. The child will also take into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone s actions VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT - taking into account of what happens to other people when deciding whether or not to copy someone s actions - relates to attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding. - The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a quality which the individual would like to possess. - Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you are identifying. - Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior. ALBERT BANDURA'S THEORY (HANNUM. LEARNING THEORIES FUNDAMETALS) ( SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY - learning through imitation, observation and modelling rather than direct reinforcement. (behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others) - learning by observing others and forming an idea on how behaviors are performed. This idea will then serves as a guide for future action. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral and an environmental influences. Bandura View of Learning Here is a comprehensive set of objectives for Bandura along with points based on these objectives: 1. Describe how Bandura differs from behavioral theory. Bandura's work extends beyond traditional behavioral theory in that he believes that learning and behavioral change can happen without directly reinforcement of a person. Bandura also posits certain internal factors as influencing behavior, something that a strict behaviorist would never do. Part of Bandura's theory is based on modeling in which a person learns simply through observation of another person rather than through directly responding and being reinforced for that response. 7/30

11 2. Identify Bandura's objections to behaviorism. Bandura does not believe behaviorism goes far enough in accounting for learning. Specifically, Bandura believes that we learned a lot of our behavior through imitating the behaviors of others that we observe, not through direct action and reinforcement. Bandura believes that certain internal states such as our degree of motivation and our self- efficacy influence our behavior, something that behaviorists do not account for. Simply put, behaviorism does not go far enough in explaining our behavior and takes a limited view that completely discounts any role of the individual in governing or regulating his or her own behavior. 3. Describe reciprocal determinism. Reciprocal determinism is Bandura's term for describing the relationships among the person, his environment and his behavior. In his view a person's behavior is to some extent a function of his environment as well as a function of him as a person. Likewise the person's environment is shaped and determined at least in part by his behavior and certain believes he holds about the environment. This is to say that our behavior, our environments, as well as the beliefs and ideas we hold our determined by and shape each other. This is a reciprocal determinism, not a one- way path. 4. Describe vicarious, or observational, learning. For Bandura we learn not only through direct action on our environment and the reinforcements that result but also from vicarious or observational learning. That is, we can learn a new behavior simply through observing someone else performing that behavior not only through having to respond and be reinforced for that particular behavior ourself. This vicarious or observation learning stands in direct conflict with the beliefs of behaviorism. In vicarious learning we see someone else perform a behavior and noticed that he or she is rewarded for doing so. That active observation of another person performing a behavior and being rewarded for it increases the probability that we will engage in that behavior. In a sense, we have learned that new behavior without actively participating but rather simply through observing the behavior and its consequence on another person. 5. Describe how the process of watching a model can influence our behavior. There's several steps in the process of observational learning that must be in place for it to influence the observer and change his behavior. The person being observed, the model, must be a person with whom the observer can readily identify. This can happen if the model is a high- status person such as a celebrity, sports star, or someone held in high regard. That's why you often see these people in advertisements on television endorsing the product because their endorsement influences us. Seeing an outstanding athlete like Michael Jordan in his prime wearing a particular shoe or drinking a particular sports drink has a great influence on us. 8/30

12 Observing what he does and knowing the success that has followed him increases the probability that we will make the decision to wear the same shoes and drink the same drinks. People who have a high status and are held in high regard function well as models influencing the behavior of others who copy them. Another type of person also works well as a model. This type of person is represented by the regular guy who lives next door and is just like us. The guy next door does not have the skill, speed, or basketball abilities of Michael Jordan but if we see him wear a particular type of shoe and play well that makes us more likely to buy that shoe. If a person who does not have movie star good looks or figures like those you would see in a magazine but he or she wears a certain type of deodorant or hair spray and everyone seems to fall for them, then we are likely to buy some of that product. Thus, the first step is having a credible model. The second step is that the model makes a specific choice or engages in a specific behavior. The third step is that the model is observed receiving reinforcements for this choice. When the observation process happens like this it is likely to influence our behavior. 6. Describe the four component processes involved in observation learning. The four component processes involved in observational learning are as follows. a) attentional processes in which you determine how well a student will pay attention to the model, b) retentional processes in which you determine how well the student will remember the behavior of the model, c) production processes in which you determine how well the student can reproduce the behavior of the model, and d) motivational processes in which you determine how motivated the student is to imitate the model. 7. Describe the ideal characteristics of a model. As described previously, the ideal characteristics of the model is that it is someone who the student holds in esteem, or it is someone with whom the student readily identifies as being like him or her. Thus, an appropriate model could be someone who is widely known and admired like a movie star, a rock musician, a popular businessperson or politician, or a famous sports celebrity. Another type of appropriate model is someone who represents the person next door who is very similar to the student. 9/30

13 8. Identify what must be present in order for vicarious learning to occur. Several elements must be in place for vicarious learning to work. There has to be a model who is appropriate for the students. The model has to demonstrate the behavior you wish the students to learn, and the students have to clearly observe this behavior happening. Students also have to observe the model being reinforced immediately after and as a result of engaging in this behavior. Finally, the reinforcement that the model with cities has to be something that the student see as desirable and would like to receive themselves. 9. Distinguish between learning and behavior. To Bandura there is a distinction between learning and behavior in which learning is an internal event that is not directly observable and behavior an external event and thus directly observable. Learning can result in behavior change, but it doesn't always have to. That is, we can learn how to do something but choose not to do it. 10. Describe the concept of self- efficacy. According to Bandura self- efficacy is our belief in our ability to successfully perform a specific task. This is different than some general sense of overall self- worth or self- esteem in that our self- efficacy is the belief we hold about our capacity to perform very specific action, not some overall global ability. 11. Describe how self- efficacy is developed and how it impacts learning. Our concept of self- efficacy is developed over time through the interactions we have with our environment and how successful we have been. It is also developed through observation of others and the success they have with their environment. If a person sees herself as similar to another student and observes the other student beings successful with a specific task then that student may develop an increased self- efficacy about her ability to perform that task. 12. Describe self- regulation and the three steps in this process. Self- regulation is a process by which an individual sets goals for him or herself, observes and monitors their performance in obtaining these goals, and then judges the adequacy of their performance and makes modifications. 10/30

14 MODELING: VICARIOUS LEARNING ( Modeling is a principal component of social cognitive theory. Vicarious learning occurs when people observe the consequences for others' actions and adjust their own behavior accordingly. TYPES OF MODELLING 1. Direct - from live models: actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior 2. Symbolic - from books, movies, and television: symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media 3. Synthesized - combining the acts of different models: e.g., verbal instructional model, involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. MODELING OUTCOMES Modeling can cause new behaviors, facilitate existing behaviors, change inhibitions, and arouse emotions. In learning from models, observers go through the processes of attention (observation), retention in memory, reproduction of the observed behavior, and motivation to produce the behavior in the future. EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS ( learning.html) Richard Culatta (2012) learning.html The effectiveness of models describes the likelihood of an observer's imitating a model's behavior and depends on perceived similarity, perceived status, and perceived competence. Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks. Bandura's theory improves upon the strictly behavioral interpretation of modeling provided by Miller & Dollard(1941). Bandura s work is related to the theories of Vygotsky and Lave which also emphasize the central role of social learning. 11/30

15 PRINCIPLES BEHIND SOCIAL LEARNING ( learning.html) Richard Culatta (2012) learning.html 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. 12/30

16 2.1 Will you? Will you? - Will you likely copy the behavior of someone totally unknown to you? Will you likely copy the behavior of someone whom you disrespect or dislike? - How would you like to behave like a person whose personality is so unlike yours? - Won t you tend to avoid doing a thing knowing that someone else has suffered adverse consequences from the deed? - What behaviors are you likely to imitate? 13/30

17 2.2 Factors affecting observational learning and performance Characteristic Effects on Modeling Developmental status Improvements with development include longer attention and increased capacity to process information, use strategies, compare performances with memorial representations, and adopt intrinsic motivators. Model prestige and competence Observers pay greater attention to competent, high- status models. Consequences of modeled behaviors convey information about functional value. Observers attempt to learn actions that they believe they will need to perform. Vicarious consequences Consequences to models convey information about behavioral appropriateness and probable outcomes of actions. Valued consequences motivate observers. Similarity in attributes or competence signals appropriateness and heightens motivation. Outcome expectations Observers are more likely to perform modeled actions which they believe are appropriate and will result in rewarding outcomes. Goal setting Observers are more likely to attend to models who demonstrate behaviors that help observers attain goals. Values Observers are more likely to attend to models who display behaviors that the observers believe are important and find self- satisfying. Self- efficacy Observers attend to models when they believe they are capable of learning or performing the modeled behavior. Observation of similar models affects self- efficacy ( If they can do it, I can too ). Source: Schunk, 2012, p /30

18 2.3 What constitutes good models for social learning? SOURCE: Sternberg & Williams, 2009, p /30

19 3 What are the core concepts in social learning theory? Albert Bandura did not believe that direct reinforcement can fully explain all types of learning. Social cognitive theory extends behaviorism and focuses on changes in behavior influenced by observing others (without the need for active participation). The theory further suggests that reinforcement and punishment affect learners' motivation, rather than directly cause behavior. That is, besides the social dimension discussed earlier i.e., people can learn new information and behaviors through observation and modelling social learning theory takes into consideration the environment and the learners' beliefs and expectations (Schunk, 2012; Cherry, 2012). People are viewed as having control over 'the motivational, affective, and social determinants of their intellectual functioning, as well as the cognitive aspects' (Bandura, 1993, p. 136). Because it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, social learning theory spans both cognitive and behavioral frameworks (Culatta, 2012). Guide questions: - What are the major tenets (concepts, principles, propositions) that underlie Bandura s social learning theory? - What components are essential for behavioral learning to occur? - Describe the behavioral learning (modeling) process. 16/30

20 Read SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (KENDRA CHERRY IN ABOUT.COM) ( SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - learning occurs by observing and watching the actions of other people. - human behavior is learned observationally through modeling. observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. BASIC SOCIAL LEARNING CONCEPTS 1. People can learn through observation 2. The notion that internal mental states are as an essential part of this process 3. Theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. 1. PEOPLE CAN LEARN THROUGH OBSERVATION OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning through observing and imitating other people THREE BASIC MODELS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: 1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. 2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. 3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media. 2. MENTAL STATES ARE IMPORTANT TO LEARNING INTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT - a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. - This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.' External, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. 17/30

21 3. LEARNING DOES NOT NECESSARILY LEAD TO A CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors. THE MODELLING PROCESS Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process: 1. Attention 2. Retention 3. Reproduction 4. Motivation 1. ATTENTION In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning - Attention is active perception. - Learning cannot take place if the material to be learned is not paid attention to. - Our senses are bombarded by a tremendous amount of information, but attention is a limited resource, hence, it is necessary to filter received information to allocate limited resource to the requirements of the task (Sternberg & Williams, 2009). 2. RETENTION The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. Successful social learning requires that the behavior observed must be remembered, so that at the appropriate opportunity the behavior can be reenacted. Active memory techniques, like recall and describe, can facilitate retention of observed behaviors (Sternberg & Williams, 2009). 3. REPRODUCTION Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement. Not all observed behaviors are imitated (Sternberg & Williams, 2009). 18/30

22 4. MOTIVATION Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day. Motivation facilitates enactment of earned behavior. - People, for instance, need a good reason to execute certain behaviors. - Reinforcement can also contribute to motivated behavior (Sternberg & Williams, 2009). - Direct reinforcement rewarding actual behavior - Vicarious reinforcement observing another person rewarded for a particular behavior - Self- reinforcement rewarding one s self for desired behavior; aligns with self- regulation INTERNALIZATION AND SELF- REGULATION Internalization and self- regulation, though not indicated to be among the phases of social learning, signifies its ultimate goal. Self- regulation represents being in control of one s own behavior. Internalization means the individual not only sees but also takes in and owns the observed behavior to make it a part of himself he adapts it and integrates it into his system. LEARNERS BECOME SELF- REGULATED WHEN 1. They set learning goals on their own, 2. They monitor their progress toward the goals 3. They assess the effectiveness of their efforts (extent to which the goals are met). The theory helps explain events such as why teachers' describing their thought processes as they demonstrate skills is effective, and why students self- regulate achieve higher than peers who don't. 19/30

23 SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY (LISA FRITSCHER IN ABOUT.COM) ( TENETS OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Expert opinions differ on exactly what separates social cognitive theory from the more general social learning theory. In general, however, these principles can be used to define social cognitive theory. 1. People learn by observing others, a process known as vicarious learning, not only through their own direct experiences. 2. Although learning can modify behavior, people do not always apply what they have learned. Individual choice is based on perceived or actual consequences of behavior. 3. People are more likely to follow the behaviors modeled by someone with whom they can identify. The more perceived commonalities and/or emotional attachments between the observer and the model, the more likely the observer will learn from the model. 4. The degree of self- efficacy that a learner possesses directly affects his or her ability to learn. Self- efficacy is a fundamental belief in one s ability to achieve a goal. If you believe that you can learn new behaviors, you will be much more successful in doing so. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (RICHARD CULATTA, 2012) ( learning.html) Richard Culatta (2012) learning.html APPLICATION Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969). It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self- efficacy in a variety of contexts (e.g., Bandura, 1997). Example: TV commercials PRINCIPLES BEHIND SOCIAL LEARNING 1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing. 2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. 3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. 20/30

24 4 What is self- efficacy and what is its role in social learning? How do your personal beliefs about you capabilities, both positive and negative, influence your motivations to learn? Guide questions - Define self- efficacy. - How does a person develop beliefs about his capabilities or lack thereof? - How do self- efficacy beliefs influence learning? THINK: - How does modeling operate in the learning context? - How can teachers use social learning to their advantage? WHAT IS SELF- EFFICACY? (KENDRA CHERRY IN ABOUT.COM) ( The concept of self- efficacy lies at the center of psychologist Albert Bandura s social cognitive theory. Bandura s theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in the development of personality. According to Bandura, a person s attitudes, abilities, and cognitive skills comprise what is known as the self- system. This system plays a major role in how we perceive situations and how we behave in response to different situations. Self- efficacy plays is an essential part of this self- system. SELF- EFFICACY - the belief in one s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. - Self- efficacy is a person s belief as determinants of how people think, behave and feel. (Bandura, 1994) Since Bandura published his seminal 1977 paper, "Self- Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change," the subject has become one of the most studied topics in psychology. Why has self- efficacy become such an important topic among psychologists and educators? As Bandura and other researchers have demonstrated, self- efficacy can have an impact on everything from psychological states to behavior to motivation. 21/30

25 THE ROLE OF SELF- EFFICACY Virtually all people can identify goals they want to accomplish, things they would like to change, and things they would like to achieve. However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple. Bandura and others have found that an individual s self- efficacy plays a major role in how goals, tasks, and challenges are approached. People with a strong sense of self- efficacy: - View challenging problems as tasks to be mastered - Develop deeper interest in the activities in which they participate - Form a stronger sense of commitment to their interests and activities - Recover quickly from setbacks and disappointments People with a weak sense of self- efficacy: - Avoid challenging tasks - Believe that difficult tasks and situations are beyond their capabilities - Focus on personal failings and negative outcomes - Quickly lose confidence in personal abilities SOURCES OF SELF- EFFICACY How does self- efficacy develop? These beliefs begin to form in early childhood as children deal with a wide variety of experiences, tasks, and situations. However, the growth of self- efficacy does not end during youth, but continues to evolve throughout life as people acquire new skills, experiences, and understanding. FOUR MAJOR SOURCES OF SELF- EFFICACY 1. Mastery Experiences 2. Social Modelling 3. Social Persuassion 4. Psychological Responses 1. Mastery Experiences Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self- efficacy. - "The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences," Bandura explained. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self- efficacy. 2. Social Modeling Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self- efficacy. - According to Bandura, "Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers' beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed." 22/30

26 3. Social Persuasion Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self- doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand. - Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to believe that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. - Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. 4. Psychological Responses - Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self- efficacy. - By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self- efficacy. - Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. - A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self- efficacy in these situations. - However, Bandura also notes "it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted." 23/30

27 5 THEORY TO PRACTICE What concepts from social learning theory are at work behind the following scenarios? What do you think are the subtle and overt things that Teacher Tom accomplishes in his classroom to make his management style effective? What are some ideas that you have for adapting behavior theories to your personality and classroom population? Describe a classroom situation in which using a time- out would be appropriate. Following a student time- out, what can a teacher do to try and prevent the student's problem behaviors from occurring in the future? How might a teacher unethically use time- outs? Jun sees a guy about his age in a TV advertisement buying flowers for a girlfriend. The ad also shows the woman hug the man when he gives her the flowers. A day later, Jun buys a dozen roses for the girl he is courting. Provide a complete explanation for Jun's behavior, based on social cognitive theory. You are driving 65 on Commonwealth Ave, which has been marked speed limit of 60. You see a car that has been pulled over for an apparent traffic violation. You immediately apply the brakes and slow your own vehicle. Identify two concepts from social cognitive theory that are illustrated in this instance. Explain. Greg concludes, "I seem to have a feel for French," as he begins his homework. His teacher often compliments him on the high quality of his written work, and his effort has continually increased. Explain why. Teachers who model persistence in problem- solving tasks have students who persist longer than teachers who don't (Zimmerman & Blotner, 1979). What form of modeling occurs in such situations? Which modeling function is best illustrated by the students' increased persistence? Explain. One group of students watched teachers successfully solve problems, a second group watched peers do the same, and a third saw no models. Which group successfully solved the most problems, and which solved the fewest? Explain. 24/30

28 Teacher Tom has asked individual students in his class to give short presentations to the whole class. Mara, the first student to present, did a great job, and several students raised their hands to volunteer as the next presenter. The only glitches during Mara s presentation were the repeated interruptions from another student, Jimmy. Tom finally had to send Jimmy to the hall for a time- out. After Mara, Tom called on Mark to present. Mark, however, became so nervous he couldn t continue. After watching Mark s experience, suddenly nobody else in class wanted to volunteer either. Tom, concerned about Mark s self- esteem, later decided to try a different way to get Mark to share with the class. He asked Mark questions, starting with a simple one, and praising Mark s answer. Soon, Mark was comfortable sharing information. (Adapted from Sternberg & William, 2009) 25/30

29 6 DISCUSSIONS You may want to bring up some of the questions below into the discussion forum, preferably according to what you deem to be representative of what you consider relevant and of practical value. 1. According to Bandura, three factors work together to produce learning: behavior, person (i.e., cognitive), and environment. Environmental factors influence behavior, behavior affects the environment, person/cognitive factors influence behavior, and the loop repeats over and over. Describe how reciprocal determination affects learning. Provide a "real world" classroom scenario that illustrates this cycle. 2. How can we effectively use modeling to nurture students' learning? What impact does students' self- efficacy have on their behavior? 26/30

30 7 Suggestions for your e- Journal For your e- journal entries, you may use the following as your guide, but feel free to express other thoughts (and feelings) about learning as they have been stimulated by the topics in this chapter. Keep in mind that learning is very personal and your e- Journal should be reflective of those personal learning events. Establish connections between your experiences, observations and ideas with RELEVANT theories and principles. - An important behavior. In a distance learning environment, such as this course, what one particular behavior do you think is most important for learners to acquire? - As a participant in this class, use social learning theories as basis to make recommendations on how students in distance learning can help other acquire this behavior. 27/30

31 8 An e- Journal ACTIVITY: Models and Mentors in My Life Post the accomplished task in your ejournal. Source: Santrock. Online Learning Center. Having positive role models and mentors can make an important difference in whether individuals develop optimally and reach their full potential. First, evaluate the role models and mentors who have played an important part in your life. Second, think about the type of role model you want to be for your students. Third, give some thought to how you will incorporate other models and mentors in your students' lives. Fourth, explore who your education mentor might be. A. My Models and Mentors List the most important role models and mentors in your life. Then describe what their positive modeling and mentoring have meant to your development. Role Models and Mentors Their Contributions B. The Type of Role Model I Want to Be for My Students. Describe which characteristics and behaviors you believe are the most important for you to model for your students /30

32 C. How I Will Incorporate Models and Mentors in My Classroom? Describe a systematic plan for bringing models and mentors into your students' lives in one or more domain(s) you plan to teach, such as math, English, science, music, and so on. D. Who Will Be My Education Mentor? What Would My Ideal Education Mentor Be Like? Do you have someone in mind who might serve as an education mentor when you become a teacher? If so, describe the person. What would your ideal education mentor be like? 29/30

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