Cross-Cultural Psychology Psy 420

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1 Cross-Cultural Psychology Psy 420 Chapter 5 Culture and Cognition 1 Culture & Physiological Processes Old Model: physiology Psychology New Model: physiology Psychology Experience & learning alters brain & physiology. Ex. Secular trend in menarche Anatomical structures & physiological mechanisms universal, but culture affects physiological functioning Sandra Scarr s Theory on Gene-Environment Correlations: Passive genotype-environment interaction Evocative genotype-environment interaction Active genotype-environment interaction 2 Visual Perception Cultural Differences in Depth Perception: Use of Depth Cues in understanding spatial relationships in pictures: dependent on western education Optical illusions: Mueller-Lyer: urban more susceptible than rural Horizontal-Vertical: rural susceptible Ponzo: The young more susceptible Why cultural Differences in susceptibility to Illusions? Carpentered World Theory Front-Horizontal Forshortening Theory Symbolizing three Dimensions in Two Theory Differences generalizable to real-world?? 3 1

2 Müller-Lyer Illusion 4 Ponzo Illusion 5 Categorization Categorization of basic emotional facial expressions & primary colors & basic shapes universal Cultural filters affects categorization involving people (stereotypes) Cultural differences in categories used in sorting tasks: Westerners group by color, shape, function as they get older. Not true for Africans. 6 2

3 Memory Decline in memory with age & tendency to recall stereotype-consistent information universal Memory skills develop and function differently depending on the cultural context: The distributed-processor model Schooled individuals gain experience & develop strategies for remembering unrelated pieces of information (ex. word list). Cultures with oral traditions & no schooling can remember substantial amounts of information when it is contextually relevant (ex. a campus layout, long songs, or complex stories). For them, remembering is a means for accomplishing an activity rather than a goal in and of itself. Serial position effect related to schooling and cultural style 7 of communication Face Recognition Own race bias. Why? Implications for stereotyping? Implications for eye-witness testimony? 8 Problem Solving The process (IDEAL) of problem solving universal, although different strategies may be employed. Ex. Kim, 2002: Verbalizing heuristic interferes with thought-processes for Asians and Asian-Americans but not for European Americans. Why? Verbalizing may interfere with thinking & paying attention holistically i.e. with context in mind (vs. analytically), which characterizes E. Asian thought. Ex. Masuda & Nisbett s 2002 study on Japanese & EA who looked at animated ocean scenes & photos of wildlife: Free recall: Japanese made more statements about background (context) info & behavior & relationships than Americans did. Recognition of previously seen animals: Japanese more accurate when animal shown in its original (vs. novel) setting. Setting had little effect on EA accuracy. Meaningfulness and familiarity of tasks affect performance Schooling contributes to performance on logical reasoning tests 9 3

Importance of different strategies is culture specific Americans tend to use

4 Free recall 10 Recognition Task 11 Decision Making Strategies such as hypothesis testing, confirmation bias, representativeness bias, and availability bias universal Importance of different strategies is culture specific Americans tend to use hypothesis testing more, tight & uncertainty avoidant cultures tend to use represntativeness more 12 4

Dialectical Thinking (Peng & Nisbett, 1999) Looked at preference for (comprehension & liking of) proverbs: Dialectical proverbs (DP): Contain internal contradiction and point to the inevitability of

5 Dialectical Thinking (Peng & Nisbett, 1999) Looked at preference for (comprehension & liking of) proverbs: Dialectical proverbs (DP): Contain internal contradiction and point to the inevitability of opposing factors in everyday existence. Ex. Beware of your friends, not your enemies ; too humble is half proud. Nondialectical proverbs such as One against all is certain to fall ; for example is no proof ). DP 4 times more common in Chinese everyday Language than in the American folk wisdom DP more preferred by Chinese undergrads than by American undergrads, even when familiarity is controlled for by using Yiddish proverbs. Looked at approach towards contradiction in the form of findings of scientific studies that were superficially incompatible, to leave room for dialectical approach. Statement A: A health magazine survey found that people who live a long life eat some sorts of white meat (e.g., fish or chicken) Statement B: A study by a health organization suggests that it is much more healthy to be a strict vegetarian who does not eat meat at all. 3 groups: Only side A (to get baseline plausibility for A), only side B (baseline for B), or both. All were asked to judge the plausibility of each argument. American participants polarized their views, and Chinese participants were moderately accepting of both propositions. Conclusion: Chinese ways of thinking result in a compromise approach that seeks a "middle way." EA ways of thinking result in a differentiation model that seeks to find the correct perspective. In Asian culture, very little emphasis on constructing counter arguemnts. In Western culture, emphasis on finding the truth. 13 Preference for Yiddish Proverbs 14 Approaches to Contradictions Americans Differentiation and polarization Chinese Compromise approach: choosing the middle way 15 5

6 Creativity Universally dependent on divergent thinking, hard work, & risk taking Cultural differences in supports needed for implementation of creative ideas In uncertainty avoidant cultures, creativity flourishes if in line with norms & rules In high power distance cultures, creativity flourishes if support of authorities secured In collectivist cultures, creativity flourishes if support of group secured 16 Dreams Dreaming universal Cultural differences in Content of dreams Role of dreams. Reflect emotionally salient concerns vs. messages from higher powers 17 Time Perception Cultural Differences in Time perspective: Linear-cyclical Time orientation: Past-present-future Hall (1971): Different conceptions of time Polychronic (cyclical) time: People engage in many tasks at any given moment. Time is not a tangible entity, but is rather unstructured. People tend to be more spontaneous, and they view appointments as being breakable. The emphasis is on people and activity at hand, not schedules. Collectivistic cultures favor polychronic time. Monochronic (linear) time: Only one task is undertaken at any given moment. Time is viewed as a manageable, tangible entity that can be divided and wasted. As a result, schedules take on great importance and appointments are sacred. Individualistic cultures tend to favor it. 18 6

7 Pain Perception Language used to talk about pain affects how we experience it Cultural display rules related to tolerance for pain Cultural significance of painful experiences affects pain perception 19 Intelligence Older Models of Intelligence: Spearman s model: 1 g factor. Specific factors exist, but play minor role Thurstone s model: 7 primary mental abilities. g exists, but plays minor role Cattell s 2-factor model: fluid intelligence of & crystallized intelligence 20 Intelligence Cont d Alternative Models: Guilford s Structure-of-Intellect Model: 180 intellectual abilities along 3 dimensions (Operations, Contents, Products) Gardner s Multiple Intelligences model: 8 independent intelligences Sternberg s Triarchic Model: 3 elements of intelligence (Componential, Experiential, Contextual) 21 7

8 Intelligence Cont d Assessment of Intelligence: Wechsler s tests most frequently used today contains performance (fluid intelligence) as well as verbal items (crystallized intell.) Culturally biased? (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1993): What we are looking for is a test that will not identify ignorance as stupidity. People from different cultures are ignorant of American culture, but that does not make them stupid. The same is true of racial and cultural groups within America. 22 Unmet Assumptions in Using Same Tests of Cognitive Abilities Across Cultures Patricia Greenfield (1997) Values: There is agreement between participants and experimenters on the value of a given response. Knowing: The knower is always an individual. Communication: The function of questions is the same across cultures. 23 Test Bias & Other Controversies 1. Bias: A psychometric issue At the item level: indicated by differences in the probabilities of a correct response by members of different groups whose ability is identical. At the test level: indicated by different predicted scores for members of different groups whose criterion scores are identical. Bias not a new issue. In 1917, Henry Goddard tested immigrants arriving at Ellis Island. Concluded that most were feebleminded. Led to immigration restrictions. 2. Test Fairness: A social issue. 24 8

9 Test Bias & Other Controversies Cont d 3. What do the tests measure? Aptitude or Achievement? 4. What are the Influences of heredity & the environment? Heritability about.5. leaves a lot of room for environmental influences--range of reaction. heritability explains variations in intelligence among individuals within a group, not variations in intelligence between groups. 5. How modifiable is intelligence? Fadeout in intelligence scores of head start children Nutrition Model or Inoculation Model? 25 Culture & Perceptions of Social Intelligence Patricia Ruzgis and Grigorenko (1994) Individualistic cultures: focus on the ability to make one s needs or opinions known, or positive social competence. Collectivist cultures: the social component of intelligence involves receptive social competence (obedience, social conformity, respect for elders, and caution in social relationships) 26 9

Analogical Representations. Symbolic Representations. Culture as Cognition. Abstract mental representations. Includes: 9/15/2012

Analogical Representations. Symbolic Representations. Culture as Cognition. Abstract mental representations. Includes: 9/15/2012 Analogical Representations Mental images Analogous to object Brain processes mental objects like real objects Symbolic Representations Abstract mental representations Includes: Words Concepts Culture as