Third Edition A History of Modern Psychology Thomas Hardy Leahey Virginia Commonwealth University Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
CONTENTS Preface xi PART I Introduction 1 1 Psychology, Science, and History 3 Understanding Science 4 The Image of Modern Science 4 Explanation 5 Theories: How Scientists Explain Things 9 The Nature of Scientific Change 13 Science as a Worldview 21 The Scientific Challenges to Psychology 24 Psychology and The Discipline of History 24 History of Science 24 Historiography of Psychology 28 Bibliography 30 References 30 2 Laying the Foundations 34 Three Eras and Two Revolutions in the Human Ways of Life 34 The Origins of "Psychology" 36 The Renaissance 36 The Ancients and the Moderns: The Revival of Humanism 37 Renaissance Naturalism 37 The Scientific Revolution 38 The Transformation of Matter and the Mechanization of the World Picture 38 The Transformation of Experience and the Creation of Consciousness 39 Creating Psychology: Rene Descartes 39 Philosophical Psychology in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 43 Examining the Mind 43 Examining Mind and Body 47 Examining Other Minds 48 Human Nature, Morality, and Society 48 The Enlightenment Project 48 Examining Human Nature 49. The Counterenlightenment 50 The Nineteenth Century: Shaping the Field of Psychology 57 Central Controversies 57 iii
The Nineteenth Century: Innovations 57 Neuroscience 57 Methods 59 Institutions 61 Psychopathology 62 Conclusion 65 Bibliography 66 PART II Founding Psychology 69 3 The Psychology of Consciousness 71 Settings 71 The German University: Wissenschaft and Bildung 71 German Values: The Mandarin Bildungsburger 73 Wilhelm Wundt's Psychology of Consciousness 77 Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 77 Wundt' s Psychology 78 Wundt at Work 83 After Leipzig: Other Methods, New Movements 87 The Positivist Turn: Psychology as Natural Science 87 Phenomenological Alternatives 90 Systematic Introspection: The Wiirzburg School, 1901-1909 93 Scientific Phenomenology: Gestalt Psychology 97 The Practical Turn: Applied Psychology 102 The Fate of the Psychology of Consciousness 103 Slow Growth in Germany 103 Transplantation to America 105 Bibliography 105 References 107 4 The Psychology of the Unconscious 110 The Significance of Psychoanalysis 110 Freud and Scientific Psychology 111 Freud and Academic Psychology 111 Freud and Experimental Method 112 Structure of the Chapter 113 The Formation of Psychoanalysis, 1885-1899 113 Freud and Biology 113 Freud the Physician: Studying Hysteria 119 The Seduction Error and the Creation of Psychoanalysis 125 Classical Psychoanalysis, 1900-1919 131 The Founding Work: The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) 131 The Classical Theory of the Instincts: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905) 133 The Classical Theory of Personality: The Topography of the Mind 135 j Revising and Extending Psychoanalysis 138 Revisions 138 Extensions 140 iv CONTENTS
The Fate of Psychoanalysis 141 Freudian Psychoanalysis and Science 142 Psychoanalysis after Freud 144 The Freudian Legacy 145 Bibliography 146 References 147 5 The Psychology of Adaptation 154 Evolution and Psychology 154 Heraclitus Triumphant: The Darwinian Revolution 155 Background 755 Romantic Evolution 756 The Victorian Revolutionary: Charles Darwin (1809-1882) 757 Reception and Influence of Evolution by Natural Selection 760 The Beginnings of the Psychology of Adaptation in Britain 762 Lamarckian Psychology: Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) 762 Darwinian Psychology 764 Functional Psychology in Europe 769 James Ward (1843-1925) 769 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) 7 70 Psychological Ideas in the New World 7 71 General Intellectual and Social Environment 777 Philosophical Psychology 7 74 The New American Psychology 775 America's Native Philosophy: Pragmatism 775 America's Psychologist: William James (1842-1910) 178 Establishing American Psychology 755 The New Psychology and the Old 185 To the Future: Perception and Thinking Are Only There for Behavior's Sake 186 Bibliography 7.57 References 189 PART III A Very Different Age, 1880-1913 191 6 The Conspiracy of Naturalism 193 From Mentalism to Behavioralism 795 Psychology and Society 193 From Island Communities to Everywhere Communities 794 the Old Psychology versus The New Psychology 795 Progressivism and Psychology 796 Building on James: The Motor Theory of Consciousness, 1892-1896 200 Hugo Miinsterberg and Action Theory 200 John Dewey and the Reflex Arc 202 From Philosophy to Biology: Functional Psychology, 1896-1910 203 Experiments Become Functional 203 Functional Psychology Defined 205 ' From Undercurrent to Main Current 206 References 209 Contents v
7 Consciousness Dissolves 211 New Directions in Animal Psychology, 1898-1909 277 From Anecdote to Experiment 277 The Problem of Animal Mind 277 Rethinking Mind: The Consciousness Debate, 1904-1912 279 Does Consciousness Exist? Radical Empiricism 279 The Relational Theory of Consciousness: Neorealism 227 The Functional Theory of Consciousness: Instrumentalism 224 Conclusion: Discarding Consciousness, 1910-1912 225 Bibliography 227 References 229 PART IV Scientific Psychology in the Twentieth Century 231 8 The Golden Age of Behaviorism, 1913-1950 233 Behaviorism Proclaimed 233 The Behaviorist Manifesto 233 The Initial Response, 1913-1918 236 Behaviorism Defined, 1919-1930 239 The Varieties of Behaviorism 239 Human or Robot? 241 Later Watsonian Behaviorism 242 Major Formulations of Behaviorism, 1930-1950 244 Psychology and the Science of Science 245 Edward Chace Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism 247 Clark Leonard Hull's Mechanistic Behaviorism 257 Tolman vs. Hull 254 Conclusion: We're All Behaviorists Now 257 References 258 9 The Decline of Behaviorism, 1950-1960 261 The Decline Begins 267 Philosophical Behaviorism 262 Formal Behaviorism in Peril 267 B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) 269 Radical Behaviorism as a Philosophy 270 The Experimental Analysis of Behavior 277 Interpreting Human Behavior 276 Behaviorism and the Human Mind 279 Informal Behaviorism 279 The Concept of Mediation 280 Challenges to Behaviorism 282 Cartesian Linguistics 282 Erosion of the Foundations 285 The Disappearance of Positivism 285 I Constraints on Animal Learning 286 Awareness and Human Learning 289 References 290 vi CONTENTS
10 The Rise of Cognitive Science, 1960-2000 293 Early Theories in Cognitive Psychology 293 The New Structuralism 293 Cognition in Social Psychology 295 New Cognitive Theories of Perception and Thinking 296 The Mechanization of Thought 297 Artificial Intelligence 297 Solving Purpose: The Concept of Feedback 298 Defining Artificial Intelligence 299 The Triumph of Information Processing 300 The "Cognitive Revolution" 300 The Myth of the Cognitive Revolution 505 The Nature of Cognitive Science 307 Informavores: The Subjects of Cognitive Science 307 The Minds of Informavores: The New Functionalism 307 Cognitive Science at Maturity: Debates and Developments 309 Uncertainties 309 Debates 570 Developments: The New Connectionism 575 The Study of the Mind at the Beginning of the New Millennium 323 Bibliography 323 References 325 PART V Applied Psychology in the Twentieth Century 329 11 The Birth of Applied Psychology, 1892-1919 331 Scientific, Applied, and Professional Psychology 331 Origins of Applied Psychology 332 Mental Testing 332 Founding Applied Psychology in the United States 336 Professional Psychology 341 Clinical Psychology 341 Organizing Professional Psychology 343 Psychology Enters Public Consciousness: Psychology in the Great War 344 Psychologists at War 344 The Shattering Impact of World War I 346 References 347 1 2 The Rise of Professional Psychology, 1920-1950 349 Psychologists in Social Controversy 349 Psychology in the American Social Context 349 Is America Safe for Democracy? The "Menace of the Feebleminded" 349 Making America Safe for Democracy: Immigration Control and Eugenics 352 Psychology and Everyday Life 357 Psychologists at Work 357 When Psychology Was King 358 Flaming Youth and the Reconstruction of the Family 363 Contents vii
Psychologists in Professional Controversy 367 Divorce: The Clinicians Walk Out 367 Reconciliation in the Crucible of World War II 368 Psychology in World War II 370 New Prospects for Applied Psychology 370 Inventing Counseling Psychology and Redefining Clinical Psychology 577 Optimism in the Aftermath of War 373 Contending for Respectability and Money at the Dawn of Big Science 373 Psychologists Look Ahead to the Psychological Society 375 Values and Adjustment 376 References 377 1 3 The Psychological Society, 1950-2000 380 Developing the Psychological Society 380 Professional Psychology in the 1950s 380 Humanistic Psychology 381 The Social "Revolution" of the 1960s 383 Psychologists' Critique of American Culture 384 The Myth of Mental Illness 384 Humanistic Psychology and the Critique of Adjustment 385 Giving Psychology Away 388 Revolt, but No Revolution 390 Professional Psychology 392 Funding Social Science 392 Clinical Psychology in the 1960s and 1970s 394 Divorced Again: The Academics Walk Out 399 Professional Psychology at the Beginning of the New Millennium 400 Bibliography 407 References 404 Index 409 viii CONTENTS