Definition, History, Branches, Areas, Research Methods

Transcription

1 Definition, History, Branches, Areas, Research Methods

2 Psychology is a word derived from ancient Greek roots: Psyche soul or mind, logos study Psychology is the study of the mind. The science of behavior and mental processes Behavior observable actions of a person or animal Mind thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences Science--an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods

3 MAJOR ISSUES Free will vs. determinism are the causes of behavior knowable, and is behavior predictable? Free will is the belief that behavior is caused by an individual s independent decision-making Determinism is the assumption that everything that happens has a cause or determinant in the observable world

4 The mind vs. brain problem: - How is experience (mind) related to the organ system called the brain? Dualism is the belief that the mind is separate from the brain but somehow controls the brain and also the rest of the body Monism is the view that conscious experience is generated by and therefore is inseparable from the brain

5 The nature vs. nurture issue How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and environment? Some scientists assume the larger proportion of differences in potential and behavior are due to the influence of genes Others assume that most differences are results of aspects of the environment such as culture, expectations, and resources This issue arises in virtually every field of psychology, and knowledge gained through research seldom provides a simple answer

6 Psychology is an academic, non-medical discipline that includes many branches and specialties The educational requirements can vary, but generally involve study beyond the bachelor s degree A master s degree, or a Ph.D./Psy.D. (doctor of psychology) are common terminal degrees in the discipline

7 More than one-third of psychologists work in academic settings. The remainder find positions in a variety of settings (based on the data of Chamberlain, 2000).

8 Historical Background Plato ( ) Plato was interested in moral philosophy and despised natural philosophy (that is, science) as an inferior and unworthy sort of knowledge. Believed we are born with complete knowledge within our soul. Learning a process of inner reflection to discover the knowledge within us.

9 Democritus of Abdera BC Democritus explained all changes in the world as changes in motion of the atoms, or the way that they were packed together. This brought mathematics into a fundamental physical role since the whole of the structure proposed by Democritus was quantitative and subject to mathematical laws. Another fundamental idea in Democritus's theory is that nature behaves like a machine, it is nothing more than a highly complex mechanism.

10 History of Psychology

11 History of Psychology: Aristotle, before 30 BC Greek naturalist and philosopher who theorized about learning, memory, motivation, emotion, perception, and personality.

12 René Descartes: Originated the concept of Dualism, viewed mind and body as interactive machines. Stated that the mind could follow body and vice versa. Proposed the idea of both voluntary and involuntary behavior. Ruled out areas other than the brain for mental functioning.

13 John Locke: Knowledge should be acquired by careful observation. No innate ideas: all knowledge comes from experience or reflection. Mind is a blank slate written on by experience (tabula rasa).

14 Charles Darwin: 1850s Studied the evolution of finches and expands his study to include humans. Opposed religious teachings of the time by suggesting that man was a common ancestor to lower species.

15 Birth of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt: - Father of Psychology 1879: established the 1 st experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Intended to make psychology a reputable science. Many American psychologists eventually went on to study in Leipzeig.

16 E.B. Titchener Wundt s student, professor at Cornell University Analyzed the intensity, clarity and quality of the parts of consciousness Founder of structuralism E. B. Titchener ( )

17 STRUCTURALISM Studied the basic elements (structure) of thoughts and sensations. identify atoms of the mind focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes measured reaction times

18 William James First American psychologist Started psychology at Harvard in 1870s Opposed Wundt and Titchener s approach Author of the first psychology textbook Founder of Functionalism functionalism influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment William James ( )

19 FUNCTIONALISM Emphasized studying the function of consciousness and how consciousness helped people adapt to their environment

20 Psychology (pre-1920) Wilhelm Wundt ( ) Physiologist & Perceptual Psychologist Founder of Psychology as a Science Experiments Introspection Edward Titchner ( ) Student of Wundt Formed Y at Cornell Psychology Understanding Mental Processes William James ( ) Philosopher & Psychologist Formed Y at Harvard

21 Structuralism vs Functionalism Wilhelm Wundt Functionalism Analyze consciousness into basic elements and study how they are related Introspection - self-observation of one s own conscious experiences Investigate the function, or purpose of consciousness rather than its structure Leaned toward applied work (natural surroundings) Structuralism William James ( )

22 John B. Watson Founder of Behaviorism Studied only observable and objectively described acts Emphasized objective and scientific methodology John B. Watson ( )

23 Ivan Pavlov ( ) Behaviorist Russian Physiologist Studied learning through associations in animals Emphasized the study of observable behaviors

24 B.F. Skinner Behaviorist American psychologist at Harvard Focused on learning through rewards and observation studied learning and effect of reinforcement B. F. Skinner ( )

25 Behaviorism John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner structuralism was abandoned because it was difficult to study the subjective perception of experience. Behaviorism concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes. Behaviorists primarily seek to study the observable behaviors associated with learning.

26 Behaviorism Scientific Psychology should focus on observable behavior. Psych the Science of Behavior John Watson ( ) Mental Processes cannot be studied directly Stimulus Response Psychology Ivan Pavlov

27 Psychology (1920s-1960s) Behaviorism Psychology Science of Observable Behavior John B. Watson ( ) Behavior without Reference to Thought The RAT & S-R Psychology B. F. Skinner ( ) Behaviorism with a Twist The PIDGEON & The Skinner Box

28 Sigmund Freud ( ) Austrian physician that focused on illness Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts

29 Freud & Psychoanalysis Proposes the idea of the UNCONSCIOUS Thoughts, memories & desires exist below conscious awareness and exert an influence on our behavior Sigmund Freud ( ) Unconscious expressed in dreams & slips of the tongue Psychoanalytic Theory attempts to explain personality, mental disorders & motivation in terms of unconscious determinants of behavior

30 Created Gestalt Psychology Wolfgang Kohler The whole is different from the sum of its parts. Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. Wolfgang Kohler ( )

31 Gestalt Psychology The whole is different than the sum of its parts. Max Wertheimer ( ) WHY? Phi Phenomenon Illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession. A reaction against Structuralism An attempt to focus attention back onto conscious experience (i.e., the mind)

32 Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow ( ) ( ) Helped to create Humanistic Psychology Stressed the study of conscious experience and an individual s free will Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.

33 Cognitive Psychology Cognition the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing & using information Cognitive Psychologists return to the study of learning, memory, perception, language, development & problem solving Advent of computers (late 1950s) provides a new model for thinking about the mind Noam Chomsky Language

34 Psychology (1960s-1990s) Psychology Science of Behavior & Mental Processes Cognitive Y Sigmund Freud ( ) The Dynamic Unconscious Mind Psychoanalysis Computers as Metaphor for Mind Study Mind through Inferences Drawn From Observable Behavior

35 Women of Psychology Mary Calkins - student of William James at Harvard but was not awarded a Ph.D. Founded psych lab at Wellesley College (1891) Maragaret Washburn - first woman to receive Ph.D. in Psychology. Wrote The Animal Mind, which helped begin the Behaviorist movement. Leta Hollingworth - Debunked popular theories that suggested women were inferior to men. Did pioneering work on adolescent development, mental retardation & gifted children.

36 Study of Psychology Today Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology values: empirical evidence critical thinking systematic research methods Goals of psychology include: description of behavior using careful observations explanation identifying the cause(s) of behavior prediction allows for specification of the conditions under which a behavior will or will not occur facilitating changes in behavior (e.g., therapy)

37 Modern Psychology Views Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner-self and the importance of subjective feelings Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

38 Modern Psychology Views Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people s behavior

39 Positive Psychology A recent addition to the field Focuses on the characteristics that make people happy and successful Asserts that psychology has, in the past, focused too much on the negative

40 Branches of Psychology General Psychology - Presents the basic and fundamental principles of human behavior. It explains the How and Why of person s behavior from a scientific viewpoint. Comparative Psychology - Deals with the behavior and mental processes of the different species Genetic or Developmental Psychology - This is a field of study regarding human development and the inheritance and development of traits and abilities

41 Branches of Psychology Dynamic Psychology - Mental phenomena are studied in terms of internal drives and motives as causes of behavior Physiological Psychology - Studies the functions of the nervous system and other bodily structures in the behavior of organism. Abnormal Psychology - This deals with behavioral disorders like physical handicaps, nervous disorders, speech impairments, mental aberrations and others.

42 Branches of Psychology Psychometrics - Concerned with the application of mathematical procedures to the problems of psychology like testing, the use of norms, central tendencies and the like. Legal / Forensic Psychology - Deals with the application of psychological knowledge in the field of law relating to the study of human behavior. Social Psychology - The object of investigation of this area is the interaction of human beings and man s relation with family and the larger social institutions with reference to leadership and attitude formation.

43 Branches of Psychology Biopsychology - The branch of psychology focused on the study of how the brain influences behavior is often known as biopsychology, although it has also been called physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology. Cognitive Psychology - the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking and attention. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s.

44 Branches of Psychology Health psychology - is a specialty area that focuses on how biology, psychology, behavior and social factors influence health and illness. The field of health psychology is focused on promoting health as well as the prevention and treatment of disease and illness. Personality Psychology - This branch of psychology is focused on the patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior that make a person unique. Some of the bestknown theories in psychology have arisen from this field, including Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

45 Area of Specialization in Psychology Educational Psychology - This concerned with the application of psychological principles to the problems of education like teacher preparation, motivation and teaching process, evaluation of teaching. Industrial or Organizational Psychology - Deals with psychological principles applied to human problems of industry and business, government and military service, occupational selection and job training, morale and placement, forms of test and plant management.

46 Area of Specialization in Psychology Clinical Psychology - This study uses concepts and methods in the diagnosis and treatment of maladjustment and mental disorders in clinical setting like behavior abnormalities ranging from reading or spelling to major mental disorders. Experimental psychology is an area of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to research the mind and behavior. Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including colleges, universities, research centers, government and private businesses.

47 Area of Specialization in Psychology Counseling psychology focuses on providing therapeutic treatments to clients who experience a wide variety of symptoms. It is also one of the largest specialty areas within psychology. The Society of Counseling Psychology describes the field as " a psychological specialty [that] facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and organizational concerns."

48 Psychology Degrees By Area

49 Careers in Psychology Clinical work e.g., psychotherapist*^ Academic e.g., professor/researcher* Business e.g., industrial psychologist*^ Journalism e.g., science writer* Technology e.g., software developer *requires graduate degree ^requires license