Brief History of Cognitive Psychology

Brief History of Cognitive Psychology Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 03/27/2018: Lecture 01-3 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Coglab Access Code To create a Coglab account, a students needs the following information: Group Name: uwpsych355 Group Password: Welcome1 Registration Code: If you did not buy the textbook bundle from the University Bookstore, then use the access code that came with your Coglab manual. If you did buy the textbook bundle from the University Bookstore, then the bundle was missing the Coglab access code. The UBookstore has requested the codes from Cengage. I'll let you know when I know how you can get an access code. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 2 Start: History of Cognitive Psychology

Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology Precursors to cognitive psychology Aristotle, Plato epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 3

Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology Precursors to cognitive psychology Aristotle, Plato epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action Experimental psychology begins in 19th century Germany Franciscus Donders (response time analysis, method of subtraction) Hermann von Helmholtz (perception, unconscious inference) Hermann Ebbinghaus (experimental study of memory) Wilhelm Wundt (analytic introspection, analysis of conscious experience) Behaviorist hiatus in America: roughly 1920 1960 During the behaviorist period (1920-1960), cognitive psychology continued to be studied in Europe. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 5

Early Cognitive Psychology: F.C. Donders (1818-1889) Mental chronometry: Measuring the duration of a cognitive process Reaction-time (RT) (a.k.a. response time): RT = the time interval between stimulus presentation and the response to the stimulus TIME Stimulus Presentation RT Response "Donders, Franciscus Cornelis (1818-1889)" by Alexander Seitz (Photographic company) - SIL14-D4-14a.jpg from the Scientific Identity: Portraits from the Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology (reworked). Licensed under Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/file:donders,_franciscus_cornelis _(1818_-_1889).jpg#/media/File:Donders,_Franciscus_Cornelis _(1818_-_1889).jpg Method of Subtraction: Used to infer how long a mental process takes when the process is not directly observable. Method of subtraction is an example of a behavioral research method. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition of Simple RT and Choice RT 8

Simple and Choice Reaction Time and Measuring the Time It Takes to Choose Simple RT task: Participant pushes a button quickly after a light appears. Choice RT task: Participant pushes one button if light is on the right side, and a different button if light is on left side Donder s goal: To measure how long it takes a person to decide which button to press in the choice RT task. How long is the decision process? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing Time Course of Simple RT 9

Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Simple RT Time Simple RT = (Response Completion) (Stimulus Onset) In a simple RT task, the subject does not have to decide how to respond. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing Time Course of Choice RT 10

Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Choice RT Time Choice RT = (Response Completion) (Stimulus Onset) In a choice RT task, the subject has to decide which response is appropriate. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram showing the Decision Stage in the Information Process 11

Diagram of Cognitive Processes During Choice RT Decision Time Decision time = the length of time that it takes to decide which response is appropriate. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Question for the Class: How to Measure Decision Time? 12

Question for the Class: How Can We Measure the Duration of the Decision Stage in a Choice RT Task? Donder s goal: Measure how long it takes a person to decide which button to press in the choice RT task. How long is the decision process? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram comparing simple and choice RT 13

Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT Simple RT Choice RT Method of Subtraction: Duration of Decision Stage (red) = Choice RT Simple RT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing that the Perceiving Stages are Identical 14

Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT Simple RT Same Choice RT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing that the Responding Stages are Identical 15

Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT Simple RT Same Choice RT Diagram Showing that the RT Difference Measures the Duration of the Decision Stage Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 16

Method of Subtraction: Compare Simple RT to Choice RT Simple RT Same Choice RT Method of Subtraction: Duration of Decision Stage (red) = Choice RT Simple RT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What does Donder s Method Show About Cognitive Psych? 17

Why is Donder s Method of Subtraction Important for Cognitive Psychology? It combines a behavioral study with a simple computational model of a cognitive process. The combination yields an important measurement the duration of a stage in a mental process. Mental chronometry Example of a purely or strictly behavioral study no physiological measurements; no brain imaging. Method of subtraction is a valid measure of mental duration if all of the assumptions are valid. Unfortunately, the assumptions of this method are often not valid. But Donder's ideas inspired improved methods that do lead to valid measurements of the duration of mental processes. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 fmri Method of Subtraction 18

Subtraction Methods in fmri Brain Imaging Activations are regions of significant change from a control condition to a test condition. Test Condition: Subject views picture. Control Condition: Subject fixates a blank screen. Brain image shows regions of significant activation when comparing Test Condition to Control Condition. (Slice of brain is viewed from above.) The purpose of this slide is simply to show that subtraction methods are used in modern fmri studies. Specific details are not important. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Helmholtz & Unconscious Inference 19

Early Cognitive Psychology: H. L. F. von Helmholtz (1821 1894) Great mathematician, physicist, psychologist Contributions to psychology: perception, especially color vision, hearing, optics, unconscious inference Helmholtz invented idea of Unconscious Inference Some of our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions we make about the environment We infer much of what we know about the world Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram that Illustrates Unconscious Inference (Occlusion) 20

Unconscious Perceptual Inference The display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light rectangle; but it could be... (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately or (d) a gray rectangle and a strange-looking figure that are lined up appropriately. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat this Slide without the Rectangles 21

Another Example of Unconscious Inference We rapidly and automatically infer that there is a cube behind a screen with holes in it. Your knowledge of cubes and occlusion (seeing through holes) determines what you perceive in this figure. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Example of Unconscious Inference: Craters versus Mounds 23

Example: Craters or Mounds? Craters Mounds What is the shape of the sand on the left and on the right? Where is the light coming from on the left and on the right? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Image + Light from Above Assumption 24

Example: Craters or Mounds? Craters Mounds Light comes from above assumption guides perception. Goldstein's (4th ed.) Example of a Door Decoration Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 25

Goldstein Figure 3.24 (4th ed., p. 68) X O Is "X" on a surface that projects out, or is it set in? Is "O" on a surface that project out, or is it set in? Same Slide but with Rotation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 26

Goldstein Figure 3.24 (4th ed., p. 68) Now rotate the figure! X O Diagram Showing Time Course of Choice RT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 27

Why Is the Idea of Unconscious Inference Important? Unconscious inferences contribute in many ways to our perceptions and beliefs. Cognitive psychology attempts to discover: (a) what unconscious inferences occur in the formation of our beliefs; (b) the processes by which such inferences are made. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Other Early Cognitive Psychologists Ebbinghaus & Wundt 28

Other Important Early Cognitive Research Ebbinghaus (1850 1909) and the Method of Savings Important memory research We will talk about this later in the course Wundt (1832 1920) How sensations combine to form percepts Analytic introspection Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Slide Showing the Overview of History of Cog Psych 29

Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology Precursors to cognitive psychology Aristotle, Plato epistemology, theory of ideas and their relation to human action Experimental psychology begins in 19th century Germany Done! Franciscus Donders (response time analysis, method of subtraction) Hermann von Helmholtz (perception, unconscious inference) Hermann Ebbinghaus (experimental study of memory) Wilhelm Wundt (analytic introspection, analysis of conscious experience) Behaviorist hiatus in America: roughly 1920 1960 During the behaviorist period (1920-1960), cognitive psychology continued to be studied in Europe. Revival of cognitive psychology in America (1950 1970) 1970 present: Cognitive psychology plays a major role in psychology pretty much everywhere in the world Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Behaviorist Hiatus in America 30

Behaviorist Hiatus Roughly 1920-1960 John Watson Influenced by positivist philosophy. The goal of science is to predict whatever is observable. Science should eliminate assumptions about whatever is not observable. (Questionable) Consciousness is not observable. Eliminate it from psychological theory. Anti-introspectionist. Opposed to theories that postulated unobserved psychological processes Clark Hull Stimulus/Response (S/R) learning model. Edwin Guthrie B. F. Skinner Reinforcement theory Behaviorism was an American approach to psychology not so influential in Europe and elsewhere. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Cognitive Psychology During the Behaviorist Period 31

Cognitive Psychology During the Behaviorist Period William James (1842 1910; cognitive psychology) Jean Piaget genetic epistemology Lev Vygotsky cognitive development and education Sir Frederick Bartlett (constructive memory processes) Gestalt psychology Kurt Lewin, Wolfgang Kohler The beginnings of the computer revolution. Alan Turing, Norbert Wiener, John von Neumann Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Behaviorism Loses Its Grip on Psychology 32

Behaviorism lost its grip on American psychology during the 1960's. Why did this happen? Problematic results Learning without responding: Rats that are temporarily paralyzed with atropine can learn the layout of a maze from being wheeled around the maze on a stretcher. Learning without reinforcement: Rats that explore a maze with no reinforcements show learning of the maze when they are later rewarded for running the maze. Deficiencies of behaviorism: Behaviorist theories could not provide insightful explanations or a productive research strategy for studying obvious important behaviors such as: Human language production and comprehension; also, language learning. Human problem solving; human decision making. Human attention and perception. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Behaviorism Lost Its Grip on Psych - Continuation of this Slide 33

Wednesday, 28 March, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here The material that follows will be discussed on Thursday 3/29/2018. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 34

Early Cognitive Research Strategies that Seemed Promising Structural models like transformational grammar in linguistics, or genetic epistemology in cognitive development. Computer models like the General Problem Solver of Newell and Simon. Behavioral studies of human information processing. Is it unscientific to postulate unobserved psychological processes in a psychological theory? Behaviorists "Yes" Cognitivists "No" Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Revival of Cognitive Psychology Information Processing 35

Dramatic & Interesting Examples of Early Cognitive: 1950-1960 Alan Newell & Herbert Simon: Computer models of problem solving Noam Chomsky - Grammar of natural language Lashley Neuroscience Hubel & Wiesel Receptive fields in the visual cortex Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Cognitive Psychology Since 1960 36

Cognitive Psychology Since 1960 Experimental cognitive psychology Emphasizes the behavioral approach Perception & Attention, Memory, Language, Reasoning & problem solving, Cognitive development Behavioral Approach: All dependent measures in a study are observed behavior. Computer modeling of cognitive processes Usually a mixture of the behavioral and computational approach Physiological Approach Single-cell recordings PET, fmri, ERP Study effects of drugs Physiological Approach: All dependent measures in a study are measures of physiological states or physiological responses. Hybrid Approach (Cognitive Neuroscience): The study attempts to explain behavioral responses, physiological responses, and may include computational modeling of behavior. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of History 37

The Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience Circa 1955: Single-cell electrical recording in cat visual system. Circa 1970: Event-related potentials (ERP) in the study of language Circa 1995: fmri in studies of perception, attention, and memory Circa 2005: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in psychology Review of Neural Information Processing:. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Start with Diagram of Nerve Cell & Info Transmission 38

Summary 19 th Century European origins of cognitive research Some research during the first half of the 20 th century 1955 1965: Beginning of modern cognitive psychology 1960 present: Extensive behavioral research 1990 present: Cognitive neuroscience stimulated by new imaging techniques. Present: Combination of behavioral, neuroscience and computational approaches. Review of Neural Information Processing:. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Start with Diagram of Nerve Cell & Info Transmission 39