to Cues Present at Test

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1 1st: Matching Cues Present at Study to Cues Present at Test 2nd: Introduction to Consolidation Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 05/03/2018: Lecture 06-4 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

2 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 2 Encoding Specificity Outline Matching Encoding Context to Retrieval Context Encoding specificity State-dependent memory Transfer appropriate processing Consolidation of memories Standard model of consolidation (Alternative theory: The multiple trace model of consolidation)

3 Encoding Specificity Encoding Specificity: Retrieval of a memory is more likely if cues are present at retrieval that were also present at encoding. E.g., if you want to remember info about the hippocampus, retrieval should be more successful if you are tested in Gowen 201 than if your attempts to retrieve this information occur in a different context, e.g., a one-on-one conversation with a TA in a coffee shop.... cues are present at retrieval that were present at previous retrievals. E.g., if you previously tried to remember information about the hippocampus while discussing some issue with a friend, then future attempts to remember info about the hippocampus should be more successful while discussing this issue or other issues with this friend or other friends. Deep Sea Divers Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 3

4 Deep Sea Divers Memory Deep sea divers learned (encoded) word lists on land or under water. Later the divers had to recall these words either on land or under water. Cross-over interaction indicates encoding specificity. Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Top & bottom figures show the same information. Top figure is JM s preferred way to look at the data. Bottom figure is Figure 7.10a (p. 190) in the Goldstein textbook. Display Goldstein s Chart with Miyamoto s Graph Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 4

5 Deep Sea Divers Memory Miyamoto's graph of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein's chart of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Analogous Result for Students Who Study for a Test Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 5

6 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 6 Same Slide with Grey Barrier Removed Test Score Deep Sea Divers Memory Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190)

7 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 7 Minor Ethical Dilemma Test Score Deep Sea Divers Memory Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190)

8 Minor Ethical Dilemma If you want to do well on an exam, study under conditions that are just like the exam. If you want to remember the course for general purpose needs, study under diverse circumstances. What s your goal? Doing well on the exam? Knowing and understanding the course material? State Dependent Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 8

9 State Dependent Memory State-Dependent Memory: Memory performance will be better if the mental or emotional state at time of retrieval is the same as the mental or emotional state at time of encoding. Predicted Results Evidence for this hypothesis is weak. Eich's Experiment on State Dependent Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 9

10 State Dependent Memory Goldstein Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Mood Induction: Subjects were put in a happy mood by listening to happy music and thinking happy thoughts. (Similar method for sad mood). Subjects studied word lists while in a happy or sad mood, and were tested while in a happy or sad mood. Goldstein, Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 10

11 Eich & Metcalfe (1989) Results for State Dependent Memory Goldstein Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Miyamoto's graph of the Eich & Metcalfe results. Goldstein's chart of the Eich & Metcalfe results. Goldstein, Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 11

12 Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory Encoding specificity matching the external cues at study and test promotes better recall. State-dependent memory matching the internal psychological state at study and test promotes better recall. Evidence is stronger for encoding specificity than for state-dependent memory. Transfer Appropriate Processing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 12

13 Transfer Appropriate Processing Transfer-Appropriate-Processing Used as a evidence against the depth-of-processing hypothesis I.e., It is used to show that deeper semantic processing at encoding does not always produce the strongest associations at recall. Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, Purpose of study is to show that "deeper" levels of processing do not always produce better recall. Two Different Study Conditions; Two Different Tasks at Test Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 13

14 Two Different Study Tasks (Encoding Stage) Two Types of Study Conditions: Meaning Condition: Target word: "rose" Task at study: Does "rose" fit in the sentence, "A bush grows by my front door"? Rhyming Condition: Target word: "rose" Task at study: Does "rose" rhyme with "nose"? Two Types of Memory Test (Retrieval) Standard recognition memory test: Did you see rose on the list? Did you see cow on the list? Cued Recall Test (Rhyming Test): What word did you study that rhymes with "hose"? Results: 2 x 2 Table Shows Results that Support Transfer Appropriate Processing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 14

15 Transfer Appropriate Processing (cont.) Semantic Encoding Rhyme Encoding Rhyme Cued-Recall Test 33 % 49 % Standard Recognition Test 82 % 62 % The results in row 1 are displayed in Goldstein Figure 7.11 (p. 192). The results in row 2 were not displayed in Goldstein. INTERPRETATION: Notice 33% < 49% but 82% > 62% Deeper semantic processing at encoding did not produce better recall in the cued (rhyme) recognition test. Why? In the (Rhyme Acquisition/Rhyme Test) condition, word-sound associations that were made at study were more similar to the retrieval cue (a similar sounding word), so rhyme encoding was better than semantic encoding. Why Is It Called "Transfer-Appropriate Processing"? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 15

16 Why is it called transfer-appropriate processing? In the study of learning and problem solving, subjects are said to "transfer" their knowledge from one area to another. EXAMPLE: If subject learns to solve equations in a math class, we can test whether he/she uses this knowledge in physics class. This is a test for whether the equation-solving knowledge transfers to a related physics problem solving situation. In the previous experiment, studying one rhyme at encoding transferred to use of a rhyming cue at test. General claim: Recall and recognition will be best if the cognitive processing that occurs during encoding is similar to the cognitive processing that occurs during retrieval. Depth of Processing versus Transfer-Appropriate Processing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 16

17 Depth of Processing versus Transfer Appropriate Processing In general, deeper processing produces better (stronger) memories, but... this is only true because we usually want to remember the meaning of something that we have encountered or experienced. Summary Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 17

18 Summary re Matching Encoding Context to Retrieval Context Encoding specificity matching the external cues at study and test promotes better recall. State-dependent memory matching the internal psychological state at study and test promotes better recall. Evidence is stronger for encoding specificity than for state-dependent memory. Transfer appropriate processing - recall is better if the cues that are emphasized at study are also emphasized at test. Depth of processing hypothesis is not always true - this is worth knowing on theoretical grounds. Yes, but how often is this important in everyday experience? Isn't semantic processing at time of study almost always the most advantageous strategy? (Rare exception when retrieval cues are rhymes.) Consolidation of Memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 18

19 Consolidation of Memories Recently created memories are typically fragile. Without additional retrievals, they are often too weak to retrieve. A concussion soon after learning can cause permanent loss of a memory. Fragility of new memories implies that it takes cognitive processing after the initial experience to create a strong memory. Goldstein, Figure 7.16 Typical pattern of retrograde amnesia. The recent past is the least consolidated - it is the most likely to be lost. More distant past is more consolidated - it is more likely to be preserved. Consolidation is the process by which a memory is transformed from an unstable state to a more permanent state. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is Happening During Consolidation? 19

20 What Is Happening During Memory Consolidation? Changes are happening at two levels: Synaptic Consolidation: Repeated experience causes changes at the level of the synapse. These changes occur quickly, over a matter of minutes. Systems Consolidation: Repeated retrievals cause changes in the organization of neural circuits that represent memories. These changes occur gradually, over days, months or even years. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Synaptic Changes During Learning Long-Term Potentiation 20

21 Synaptic Consolidation Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) 1 st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram without Emphasis Rectangles 21

22 Synaptic Consolidation Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) 1 st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 System Consolidation - Long-Term Process of Memory Formation 22

23 System Consolidation: The Time Course of Memory Formation Figure 7.15 (p. 195) attempts to explain the role of the hippocampus in the encoding and consolidation of memories. Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Hippocampus Hippocampus Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram Emphasis Rectangle on Left 23

24 The Time Course of Memory Formation Initial Encoding of Current Experience Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Hippocampus Hippocampus Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram Emphasis Rectangle on Middle 24

25 The Time Course of Memory Formation Retrieval of Episodic Memory Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Hippocampus Hippocampus Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram Emphasis Rectangle on Right 25

26 The Time Course of Memory Formation Retrieval (After Much Learning) of Episodic Memory Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Cortical Areas Hippocampus Hippocampus Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Transition to Diagrams That Show the Same Process But With Different Graphics 26

27 The next slides display the same ideas as the preceding slides, but with more informative graphics. The next set of slides show: The Standard Model of Memory Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explanation of Consolidation in terms of Brain Diagrams 27

28 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Encoding Event or episode 1: Processing of current information activates different brain areas in occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal cortex. Event or episode 2: Multiple brain activations spread to hippocampus (convergence zone). Somehow, hippocampus binds multimodal inputs together and encodes long-term memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Brain Activity During Retrieval 28

29 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Retrieval 3: At time of recall, partial cues stimulate some brain areas that were also activated at encoding. Partial cue 4: Activation spreads to the hippocampus. 5: Somehow, the hippocampus triggers pattern completion (partial reactivation of original activation pattern). Partial cue Partial cue Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram with Statement of Recapitulation Hypothesis 29

30 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Retrieval Reactivation Hypothesis: (Goldstein, p. 195) Episodic retrieval involves reinstatement of activations that were present during encoding. Hippocampus plays an important role in reactivation. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Reactivation Before & After Consolidation 30

31 Standard Model of Consolidation: Retrieval BEFORE consolidation has been completed. Retrieval AFTER consolidation has been completed. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation 31

32 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 32 Consolidation & Reconsolidation Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation Multiple trace model is opposed to the standard model of consolidation. According to this model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote episodic memories as well as recent episodic memories, but only if they are not semanticized. Semanticization of Episodic Memories & the Remember/Know Distinction Hippocampus is active during retrieval of remote episodic memories that the subjects "remember", but not during the retrieval of memories that the subjects "know" are true, but don't "remember". Intuitive ideas: Over time, memories can become facts (as opposed to retrieval of experiences). Retrieval of facts may not involve the hippocampus to the same degree as retrieval of experiences. This is called the semanticization of memories (transformation of a memory from being episodic to being semantic).

33 Consolidation & Reconsolidation Fact to be discussed later in next lecture: When a memory is retrieved, it is vulnerable to change. After retrieval of a memory, it is necessary to store the memory again to return it to a permanent state. Consolidation refers to processes that change an initially encoded memory into a permanent memory. Reconsolidation refers to processes that restore a memory to a more permanent form after it has been retrieved. Sometimes consolidation & reconsolidation are referred to together as consolidation. Role of Sleep in Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 33

34 Interestingly Enough,... Sleep (dreaming?) plays a functional role in promoting consolidation. Rat brain cells that fire together while exploring a location also show increased firing during subsequent sleep. Not true of other cells that did not fire during exploration. Disruption of dreaming seems to disrupt consolidation. Similar effects with humans who are learning to play tetris. Some evidence suggests that if a subject expects to be tested on Topic A but not on Topic B, then sleep (possibly, dreaming) enhances future memory of Topic A more than Topic B. Role of sleep in consolidation is not understood, but there seems to be a significant relationship between sleep and consolidation. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of Standard Model of Consolidation - END 34

35 Summary re Standard Model of Consolidation Consolidation & reconsolidation long-term memory representations become more stable over time;... hippocampus plays a central role in retrieval of incompletely consolidated memories;... over time, retrieval of memories becomes independent from the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe activity. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END 35