BIOS222 Pathology and Clinical Science 2

Transcription

1 BIOS222 Pathology and Clinical Science 2 Session 5 Lymphatic and Haematological Disorders 3 Bioscience Department

2 Session Learning Outcomes At the end of the session, you should be able to o Define and discuss the causes, clinical features, pathophysiology and management of Aplastic Anaemia. o Define and classify various types of haematological malignancies including various types of Leukaemia and Lymphomas. o Explain the pathophysiology, clinical features, classifications and management of different types of acute and chronic leukaemia. o Discuss Hodgkin s lymphoma and Non Hodgkin s lymphoma in terms of causes, clinical features, pathophysiology, and treatment. o Discuss the clinical features, investigations, and management of Paraproteinaemias - Multiple Myeloma. Endeavour College of Natural Health 2

3 Session Plan o Aplastic anaemia o Haematological malignancies Leukaemias Acute Lymphoblastic and Myeloid Leukaemia Chronic Lymphoblastic and Myeloid Leukaemia Lymphomas Hodgkin s Lymphoma Non Hodgkin's Lymphoma Paraproteinaemia Monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance (MGUS) Waldenstrom s macroglobulinaemia Multiple myeloma Endeavour College of Natural Health 3

4 Aplastic Anaemia Endeavour College of Natural Health 4

5 Aplastic Anaemia Definition: A disorder of pluripotential bone marrow stem cells that results in Pancytopenia. o Aetiology: Inherited defects (Rare) Fanconi s anaemia Dyskeratosis congenita Amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia Acquired defects Primary idiopathic Secondary: Drugs Chemicals Radiation Viral hepatitis Pregnancy Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria Endeavour College of Natural Health 5

6 o Pathophysiology: Aplastic Anaemia Inherited/ acquired defects stimulate cellular immune response production of cytokines (interferon, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]) by activated T cells cytokines suppress normal stem cell growth and development bone marrow aplasia Pancytopenia o Clinical features: Symptoms of bone marrow failure, usually anaemia or bleeding, and less commonly, infections. Endeavour College of Natural Health 6

7 Aplastic Anaemia o Diagnosis: Full blood count Peripheral blood smear Bone marrow examination o Management: Blood transfusion Bone marrow transplant Endeavour College of Natural Health 7

8 Aplastic Anaemia Aplastic bone marrow Normal bone marrow Endeavour College of Natural Health 8

9 Aplastic Anaemia: A pluripotential bone marrow stem cells disorder that results in bone marrow aplasia and Pancytopenia Inherited defects: Falconi s anaemia, Dyskaratosis congenital, Amegkaryocytic thrombocytopenia Cellular immune response cytokines (interferon, tumor necrosis factor [TNF]) production by activated T cells Normal stem cell growth and development suppressed Bone marrow aplasia Pancytopenia Symptoms of Anaemia: weakness, fatigability, and pallor, SOB, dizziness, heart murmur, cardiac enlargement, heart failure Symptoms of Thrombocytopenia: Patechia, easy bruising, bleeding from nose, gums,, stool Symptoms of neutropenia: predispositions to infections Acquired: idiopathic, Drugs, Chemicals, Radiation, Viral hepatitis, Pregnancy, Paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria Diagnosis: FBC Peripheral blood smear Bone marrow examination Management: Blood transfusion Bone marrow transplant Endeavour College of Natural Health 9

10 Leukaemias Endeavour College of Natural Health 10

11 Leukaemias Definition: Malignant disorders of the haematopoietic stem cell compartment, characteristically associated with increased numbers of white cells in the bone marrow and/or peripheral blood. o Risk factors: Ionising radiation Cytotoxic drugs Retroviruses Genetic Immunological Endeavour College of Natural Health 11

12 o Classification: Leukaemias Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, ALL ( more common in children) Acute myeloid leukaemia, AML ( more common in elderly) Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia, CLL ( more common in elderly) Chronic myeloid leukaemia, CML ( more common in elderly) Endeavour College of Natural Health 12

13 Acute Leukaemias Definition: Sudden, rapidly progressive, uncontrolled proliferation of primitive stem cells, leading to an accumulation of blasts, predominantly in the bone marrow, leading to bone marrow failure and spilling of blast cells into the blood stream. o Classification: Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) Involves lymphoid stem cells Four times more common in children Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) Involves myeloid stem cells particularly granulomonocytes Four times more common in adults Endeavour College of Natural Health 13

14 o Pathophysiology: ALL Acute Leukaemias Chromosomal aberrations dysregulation of the expression and function of transcription factors required normal hematopoietic cell development altered hematopoiesis AML Acquired genetic alterations inhibit terminal myeloid differentiation accumulation of relatively undifferentiated blast cells in bone marrow suppression of the remaining progenitor cells that leads to anaemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia Endeavour College of Natural Health 14

15 Acute Leukaemias o Clinical features: Fever, night sweat, weight loss, fatigue, pallor Bleeding in the gums, Petechial haemorrhage Enlargement of spleen and liver Infiltration of lymph nodes Tender bones and bone-pains esp. in children Sternum tender and painful Leukostasis leading to obstruction in the pulmonary and cerebral circulations. Cranial nerve palsies, headache, nausea, vomiting, papilledema, occasionally seizures and coma Sudden shortness of breath and progressive dyspnoea Endeavour College of Natural Health 15

16 o Diagnosis: Full blood count Peripheral blood smear Bone marrow examination Acute Leukaemias Immunophenotyping, chromosome and molecular analysis A. /hess-images/leukaemias/acute-myelogenous-leukaemia-m3-auer-rods- 100x.jpg/image_view_fullscreen B. Grossman, S, Porth, CM 2013, Porth s pathophysiology, Concepts of Altered Health States, 9th edn, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins A. Acute myeloblastic leukaemia: There are Auer rods in the cytoplasm of the blast cells in this smear. B. Acute lymphoblastic Leukaemia. There are irregular nuclei in the lymphoblasts in this blood smear. Endeavour College of Natural Health 16

17 o Management: Acute Leukaemias Specific therapy: to destroy the leukaemic clone of cells without destroying the residual normal stem cell compartment from which repopulation of the haematopoietic tissues will occur. Three phases: Remission induction: The bulk of the tumour is destroyed by combination chemotherapy Remission consolidation: If remission has been achieved, residual disease is attacked by therapy during this phase. Remission maintenance. A period of maintenance therapy is given, consisting of a repeating cycle of drug administration. This may extend for up to 3 years if relapse does not occur. Endeavour College of Natural Health 17

18 o Management: Acute Leukaemias Supportive therapy: To deal with periods of severe bone marrow failure. Red cell concentrate transfusions for Anaemia Platelet transfusions for Bleeding Parenteral broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy to prevent infection Prophylaxis for pneumonia, Oral and pharyngeal infection, systemic fungal infection, herpes simplex Treatments for metabolic problems treated accordingly if occurs Psychological support Endeavour College of Natural Health 18

19 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Definition: a myeloproliferative stem cell disorder resulting in slow progressing proliferation of marrow granulocytes, erythroid precursors, and megakaryocytes. o Aetiology: Chromosome abnormality: Philadelphia(Ph) chromosome formed by reciprocal translocation t(9;22) Endeavour College of Natural Health 19

20 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Pathophysiology: Translocation of genes from chromosome from 9 to 22 create a new BCR ABL fusion gene (an oncogene) on 22 a fusion protein, (tyrosine kinase) with increased phosphorylating activity altered cellular proliferation, differentiation and survival. o Clinical features: Three phases: A chronic phase of variable length A short accelerated phase A terminal blast crisis phase Endeavour College of Natural Health 20

21 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Clinical features: (cont.) A chronic phase of variable length: Slow onset with chronic phase of 3-5 years duration Nonspecific symptoms such as weakness and weight loss Anaemia causing easy fatigability, and exertional dyspnoea Splenomegaly Hepatomegaly is less common Lymphadenopathy is relatively uncommon Endeavour College of Natural Health 21

22 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Clinical features: (cont.) A short accelerated phase: Progressive symptoms with short phase of 6 to 12 months Constitutional symptoms such as low-grade fever, night sweats, bone pain, and weight loss Splenomegaly often causes a feeling of abdominal fullness and discomfort Bleeding and easy bruising may arise from dysfunctional platelets. Endeavour College of Natural Health 22

23 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Clinical features: (cont.) A terminal blast crisis phase: Evolution to acute Leukaemia Constitutional symptoms become more pronounced Splenomegaly may increase significantly Leukemic cells infiltration into of skin, lymph nodes, bones, and CNS Symptoms of leukostasis with very high blast counts Endeavour College of Natural Health 23

24 Chronic Myeloid Leukaemias o Diagnosis: Full blood count Peripheral blood smear Bone marrow examination Karyotype RNA analysis of blood Serum LDH, urate and uric acid o Management: Chronic phase: Imatinib, dasatinib and nilotinib (tyrosine kinase inhibitor drugs) Accelerated phase and blast crisis: chemotherapy, allogeneic bone marrow transplant Endeavour College of Natural Health 24

25 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemias o Definition: It is a clonal malignancy of B lymphocytes characterized by uncontrolled proliferation and accumulation of mature immuno-incompetent B lymphocytes. o Clinical features: Often asymptomatic in the earlier stage Painless lymphadenopathy Hepatosplenomegaly Fever, abdominal pain, weight loss, Symptoms of progressive anaemia, thrombocytopenia and hypogammaglobinaemia Endeavour College of Natural Health 25

26 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemias Endeavour College of Natural Health 26

27 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemias o Diagnosis: Full blood count Peripheral blood smear Reticulocyte count and a direct Coombs test Immunophenotyping Serum immunoglobulin levels Bone marrow examination This peripheral blood smear shows an absolute lymphocytosis of small mature lymphocytes with clumped, smudgy chromatin and scant cytoplasm. Smudge cells (near the top right) are a common finding of Chronic lymphocytic Leukaemia Image from: ology-oncology/chronic-leukaemias/ Endeavour College of Natural Health 27

28 Chronic Lymphocytic Leukaemias o Management: Stage A: No specific treatment Stages B and C: Oral chemotherapy with chlorambucil. Corticosteroids Blood transfusion Radiotherapy Splenectomy Stem cell transplant o Complications: Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia Thrombocytopenia High grade non- Hodgkin s lymphoma (Richter s transformation) Hairy cell Leukaemia Endeavour College of Natural Health 28

29 Lymphomas Endeavour College of Natural Health 29

30 Lymphomas o Definition: A diverse group of solid tumours composed of neoplastic lymphoid cells that vary with respect to molecular features, genetics, clinical presentation, and treatment. o Classification: Hodgkin s lymphoma Non Hodgkin s lymphoma Endeavour College of Natural Health 30

31 Hodgkin s Lymphomas o Definition: A specialized form of lymphoma that features the presence of an abnormal cell called a Reed- Sternberg cell. o Aetiology: Unknown More common in patients from well-educated backgrounds and small families Three times more likely with a past history of infectious mononucleosis but no definitive causal link to Epstein Barr virus infection is proven Endeavour College of Natural Health 31

32 o Clinical features: Hodgkin s Lymphomas Fever, chills, night sweats and weight loss Pruritus and intermittent fevers associated with night sweats Painless enlargement of lymph nodes (mainly above diaphragm) Mediastinal masses Chest discomfort with cough or dyspnoea Fatigue and anaemia Predisposition to infections Endeavour College of Natural Health 32

33 Hodgkin s Lymphomas o Diagnosis: Lymph node biopsy Full blood count Liver function test Serum LDH level Chest X-ray CT scan of chest, abdomen and pelvis Classic Reed-Sternberg cell with two nuclei containing a prominent eosinophilic nucleolus Grossman, S, Porth, CM 2013, Porth s pathophysiology, Concepts of Altered Health States, 9th edn, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Endeavour College of Natural Health 33

34 o Management: Hodgkin s Lymphomas Early stage disease: Chemotherapy and adjunctive radiotherapy Advanced-stage disease: Chemotherapy alone Disease resistant to therapy: Autologous Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation(hsct) o Complications: Mainly due to treatment Cardiac and pulmonary toxicity, Breast cancer, lung cancer Secondary myelodysplasia/aml Endeavour College of Natural Health 34

35 Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas o Definition: It represents a monoclonal proliferation of lymphoid cells of B cell (70%) or T cell (30%) origin. o Classification: Nodular lymphoma Diffused lymphoma Low grade lymphoma High grade lymphoma T cells lymphoma B cell lymphoma o Aetiology: Viral infections Helicobacter pylori Chromosomal translocations Congenital immunodeficiency Immunosuppressed patients Endeavour College of Natural Health 35

36 Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas o Clinical features: Peripheral lymphadenopathy mainly mediastinal, intra-abdominal and pelvic Involvement of extra-nodal sites like bone marrow, gut, thyroid, lung, skin, testis, brain and, more rarely, bone Weight loss, sweats, fever and itching Hepatosplenomegaly Gut obstruction, ascites, superior vena cava obstruction and spinal cord compression Endeavour College of Natural Health 36

37 Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas o Diagnosis: Same investigations as Hodgkin s lymphoma Other tests: Immunophenotyping Cytogenetic analysis Immunoglobulin determination Serum uric acid HIV testing Low-grade follicular or nodular NHL Images from: Walker, BR, Colledge, NR, Ralston, SH, & Penman, ID (eds) 2014, Davidson s principles and practice of medicine, 22nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh. (High-grade) diffuse NHL Endeavour College of Natural Health 37

38 Non-Hodgkin s Lymphomas o Management: Asymptomatic patients may not require therapy. Indications for treatment: Marked systemic symptoms, lymphadenopathy causing discomfort or disfigurement, bone marrow failure or compression syndromes Treatment options: Radiotherapy Chemotherapy HSCT Endeavour College of Natural Health 38

39 Paraproteinaemia Endeavour College of Natural Health 39

40 Paraproteinaemias o Definition: Overproduction of one or more classes of immunoglobulin. May be monoclonal or polyclonal. o Conditions: Monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance Waldenstrom macroglobulinaemia Multiple myeloma Endeavour College of Natural Health 40

41 Monoclonal gammopathy of uncertain significance o Definition: A condition with the presence of the monoclonal immunoglobulin in the serum without other findings of multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom macroglobulinaemia, lymphoma or related disease. o Clinical features: Asymptomatic o Diagnosis: Routine blood count and biochemistry are normal Monoclonal paraprotein is usually present in small amounts with no lytic bone lesions. The bone marrow may have increased plasma cells Endeavour College of Natural Health 41

42 Waldernstrom Macroglobulinaemia o Definition: This is a low-grade lymphoplasmacytoid lymphoma associated with an IgM paraprotein, causing clinical features of hyperviscosity syndrome. o Clinical features: Nosebleeds, bruising, confusion and visual disturbance Anaemia Systemic symptoms Splenomegaly or lymphadenopathy. Endeavour College of Natural Health 42

43 Waldernstrom Macroglobulinaemia o Diagnosis: IgM paraprotein associated with a raised plasma viscosity The bone marrow with infiltration of lymphoid cells and prominent mast cells o Management: Plasmapheresis to remove IgM Blood transfusion Chemotherapy with alkylating agents, such as chlorambucil Endeavour College of Natural Health 43

44 Multiple Myeloma o Definition: This is a malignant proliferation of plasma cells that produce immunoglobulin of a single heavy and light chain, a monoclonal protein commonly referred to as a paraprotein. In some cases, only light chain is produced. Walker, BR, Colledge, NR, Ralston, SH, & Penman, ID (eds) 2014, Davidson s principles and practice of medicine, 22nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh. Endeavour College of Natural Health 44

45 o Clinical features: The main sites involved are: Bones Bone marrow Multiple Myeloma Signs and symptoms are shown in the image Grossman, S, Porth, CM 2013, Porth s pathophysiology, Concepts of Altered Health States, 9th edn, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Endeavour College of Natural Health 45

46 o Diagnosis: Multiple Myeloma Based on two of the following criteria: Increased malignant plasma cells in the bone marrow Serum and/or urinary M-protein Skeletal lytic lesions o Management: Immediate support Chemotherapy with or without HSCT Radiotherapy Bisphosphonates Endeavour College of Natural Health 46

47 Reading and Resources o o o o o o o Crowley LV, 2012, An Introduction to Human Diseases Pathology and Pathophysiology Correlations, 9th edn, Jones and Bartlett Learning Grossman SC & Porth CM 2014, Porth s Pathophysiology- Concepts of Altered Health States, 9th edn. Wolters Kluwer Health - Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins Hinson, J, Raven, P & Chew, S 2010, The endocrine system: basic science and clinical conditions, 2nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh Jamison, JR 2006, Differential diagnosis for primary care: a handbook for health care practitioners, 2nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh. Jarvis, C, 2012 Physical Examination & Health Assessment, 6th ed., Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia. Kumar, P & Clark, M 2012, Kumar and Clark s clinical medicine, 8th edn, Saunders Elsevier, Edinburgh. Kumar, V, Abbas, AK & Aster, JC 2015, Robbins & Cotran pathologic basis of disease, 9th edn, Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia. Endeavour College of Natural Health 47

48 o o o o o o Reading and Resources Lee, G & Bishop, P 2009, Microbiology and infection control for health professionals, 4th edn, Pearson Education, Frenchs Forest, NSW. McCance, KL, Heuther, SE, & Brashers, VL 2014, Pathophysiology: the biologic basis for disease in adults and children, 7th edn, Elsevier. Michael-Titus, A, Revest, P & Shortland, P 2010, The nervous system: basic science and clinical conditions, 2nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh Mosby s dictionary of medicine, nursing and health professions 2013, 9th edn, Elsevier, St. Louis, MO. Tortora, GJ & Derrickson, B 2014, Principles of anatomy and physiology, 14th edn, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ. VanMeter, KC & Hubert, RJ 2014, Gould's pathophysiology for the health professions, 5th edn, Elsevier, St Louis, MO. o Walker, BR, Colledge, NR, Ralston, SH, & Penman, ID (eds) 2014, Davidson s principles and practice of medicine, 22nd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Edinburgh. Endeavour College of Natural Health 48

49 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of the Endeavour College of Natural Health pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice. Endeavour College of Natural Health 49