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913 Foodservice use of fats and oils The food service industry has been defined as "food consumed away from home," However, with the expansion of "take-aut" and home delivery of prepared foods, this

1 913 Foodservice use of fats and oils The food service industry has been defined as "food consumed away from home," However, with the expansion of "take-aut" and home delivery of prepared foods, this definition should be changed to "food prepared away from home:' Another foodservice descriptor has been "HRI" which stands for "hotels. restaurants and institutions," which still form the major share of the industry. Numerous segments of the foodservice industry exist today. Each of the segments has different feeding and marketing requirements. Figure 1 shows the types of food establishments, each of which may have different food requirements, different preparation requirements or different facilities. These differences in food and preparations have created a demand for more specialized ingredients as opposed to the all-purpose products offered for so many years. The Ioodservlce industry purchased in excess of $100 billion of food in These purchases are divided into commercial and noncommercial market segments (Figure 2). The commercial establishments '2.7'10 Re$taurants utilized the major share of the food purchases (66.3%). Separate eating places (fast-food, regular restaurants and cafeterias) accounted for 78.3% of the commercial group marker. The remaining commercial establishments were supermarket delis, convenience stores, general merchandise, drug stores, lodging, recreation. separate drinking places and other retail outlets. The "noncommercial" foodservice operations market was composed of food preparation facilities for business or industry cafeterias, vending services, health care institutions, schools, military facilities, airlines and any other noncommercial food preparation facilities. Edible fats and oils art major foodservice ingredients. A recent breakdown of the direct foodscrvice 3.2% Hotets 7.6'1> Retait 2. Rem:atioo 8.6% Business and industry 7.4'10 Vending fats and oils requirements is charted in Figure 3. Frying shortenings and oils command the largest portion of this market (57%); margarines, baking shortenings, pan and grill products, and salad oils have about equal shares of this market. Frying is the only food preparation used in many fast-food operations and the major one in many restaurants. Table I shows the quantity of frying shortening or oil required by the major fried-food categories. French fries are the major fried food with the meat categories being second. Doughnuts and other fried foods make up the remainder of the frying shortening or oil requirements. In deep-fat frying, the shortening or oil functions as a heat-transfer agent. It is more efficient than dry oven heat and faster than boiling in water. The high temperatures used cause rapid heat penetration and provide short cooking times. Short preparation time has long been a major requirement in the fast-food industry. Unlike cooking methods such as boiling or baking, frying involves the heat transfer medium-the oil or shortening-becoming a part of the food. The frying shortening reacts with protein and carbohydrate in the 5.6% Healthcare 1.1'10 SchooWcot1ege$ Table 1 Fried products' Billion pounds lats and oils usage Fried roods Agure 1. Pweent of 1m food purehli_ by the foodmt'vlee Industry 0.2 Doughnuts/other 0.2 Fish/shrimp 0.3 Chicken 1.0 French fries INFORM. VolA no. 8 (August 1993)

914 Table 2 Foodservlce frying alia and shortening characteristics Frying oil RHD oils Salad oils Liquid All-purpose Animal All-vegetable or shortening shortenings shortening blends frying shortening

2 914 Table 2 Foodservlce frying alia and shortening characteristics Frying oil RHD oils Salad oils Liquid All-purpose Animal All-vegetable or shortening shortenings shortening blends frying shortening Consistency Clear liquid Clear liquid Opaque Plastic Solid Solid pourable solid Typical melting point (of) Liquid Liquid AOM stability (h) Pclyunsaturates (%) 34-<> Saturates (%) Selection criteria Pourable Pourable Pourable All-purpose Stability Stability Oily fry Oily fry Semi-oily fry Dry-fry Dry-fry Dry-fry Nutrition Nutrition Nutrition High melt Price Nutrition Price Stability point Meat flavor Economy food to develop unique flavors and odors that can provide consumer appeal. The six major types of frying shortenings and oils are (a) refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) oils, (b) salad oils, (c) liquid frying shortenings, (d) all-purpose shortenings. (e) animal fat blends and (f) hydrogenated vegetable oil shortenings. Characteristics of the six frying oils and Shortenings are shown in Table 2. Foodservice operators must evaluate each oil product's performance to determine the one best-suited to their operations. The first product, RBD oil, should have the lowest initial cost of the vegetable oil products. An RHO TOIll] commercial Total noncommercial oil is a pourable, clear liquid oil high in polyunsarurates. It will perform satisfactorily if the fried food volume is extremely high and an oily product appearance is desired. Salad oils may have been lightly hydrogenated before fractionation to lower the polyunsaturates level slightly to increase flavor stability. Salad oils are also clear liquid products that provide an oily fried product appearance. Liquid frying shortenings normally provide longer frying stabilities than either the RBD or salad oils. Most of these products have hard fractions suspended in a liquid oil to produce an opaque pourable product. Fried foods prepared with liquid '60.8 $10 $20 $30 S40 $50 $60 $70 $80 F1gure loodservlcelndustry food purchased (In billions 01 dollars) shortenings have a semi-oily appearance but are still relatively high in polyunsarurares which may be important for nutritional considerations. All-purpose shortenings were the first plastic vegetable products used for frying. Today these shortenings are still preferred for doughnuts and other specialty products with high fat absorptions and which require a dry fried appearance. The all-purpose functionality of these shortenings appeals to doughnut shop operators because only one shortening product is required for the product make-up and frying. Animal fan, alone or in blends with vegetable oils, have been used as frying shortenings for many years. Animal-fat shortenings have been attractive to foodservice operators due to a usually low initial cost. good frying stability and, some claim, a preference by consumers for the meaty flavor transferred to the fried food. The use of animal-fat shortenings has decreased dramatically in recent years because of nutritional concerns and pressure from special interest groups. Most foodservice operations that used animal-fat shortenings for frying have changed to cholesterol-free all-vegetable frying shortenings or oils. All-vegetable frying shortenings were among the first shonenings specifically formulated for a definite INFORM, Vol. 4, no. 8 (August 1993)

915 function. These solid shortenings were developed for maximum frying stability through the reduction of polyunsaturates via hydrogenation.

3 915 function. These solid shortenings were developed for maximum frying stability through the reduction of polyunsaturates via hydrogenation. These shortenings appeal to the foodservice operator because of their longer frying life. The foodservice industry has had a negative reaction 10 the solid consistency of these shortenings, usually packaged in 50- pound cubes. It is more difficult to load fryers with a solid shortening than to merely pour the liquid products. The five-pound print packaging is one attempt to make this frying shortening easier 10 handle. Stability has been referred to continuously during this discussion of the six types of frying shortenings and oils. Several factors affect frying stability: o Polymerization is the combining of triglyceride molecules to form three-dimensional polymers. Polymerization results in increased viscosity which causes foaming. The foam is caused when the oil will not release the moisture but keeps it trapped while also incorporating air. o Oxidation is the combination of oxygen with the unsaturated fatty acids causing flavor and odor reversion and fat darkening. Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction involving molecular breakdown by reaction with water leading to off flavors and darkening. As discussed earlier, foodservice frying stability can be extended via hydrogenation which decreases a frying product's unsarurauon. Another significant contributor to frying stability is the additive methyl silicone. At parts per million, methyl silicone effectively retards oxidation and polymerization. Frying stability increases of 3-10 times have been confirmed in controlled laboratory frying evaluations. The degree of increase is dependent upon the original stability of the frying fat before the antifoamer is added: the more stable original products show a greater increase in stability when an antifoamer is added. This additive has substantially changed the foodservice frying parameters. Until the late 1950s or early 196Os, foaming often was the key used by a foodseri.7 Frying shortening. and oil Flgunt 3. Food.. rvlce miimt for edible t.ts and oill (3.0 billion pounds total--dlrect vice operator to decide when to replace the frying shortening. Now, a frying fat that reaches the persistent foaming stage may have gone beyond the discard point and may be a health hazard. Today the most-used frying shortening discard indicators include: Color-Discarding the oil when it matches a certain color or when visibility is impaired at a defined distance. Smoking-The amount of smoking is due 10 hydrolysis, which lowers the smoke point. Time-Some operators change their frying fats after a prescribed elapsed time or a specified quantity of food has been fried. Test kits-a number of test kits have been introduced to measure color. conductivity, free fatty acid and other factors. Foaming-Still used by some operators and acceptable if the amount of foaming is not excessive. Frying shortenings and oils are the major fats and oils requirements for foodservice. However, the total of the other products (baking shortening. salad oils, grill oils and margarine) make up 43% of the total market (Figure 3). Margarines have the highest foodservice usage after frying shortenings. Margarines are water-in-oil emulsions manufactured under an 0.5 Margarine 0.2 Salad oil use) FDA Standard of Identify. That standard requires margarine to contain at least 80% fat as well as milk, milk products, or water and 15,000 international units of Vitamin A per pound. Many other optimal ingredients are permitted such as salt, artificial color and flavor, natural flavors, Vitamins D and E, emulsifiers and antimicrobial agents. The typical margarines used in foodservice operations are presented in Table 3. Differences in margarine products are possible within the standards of identify requirements. The major differences are usually effected by changes in the margarine oil base andlor the physical form. Table-grade and whipped are examples of form change effected by incorporating creaming gas at the packaging stage. Bakers and liquid margarines are quite different from the table-grade products, and both can be described as specialty products. Liquid margarine's major appeal is convenience: it is pourable at refrigerator temperatures and at room temperatures; it can be dispensed easily onto bread and buns as a wash or on grills or pans for food preparation. Baker's margarines are formulated for the preparation of cakes, icings, (continued on page 918) INFORM Vol. 4, no. 8 (August 1993)

- 918 Table 3 Foodservlce margarines Margarine Table-grade Whipped Baker's Liquid Packaging Quarters 4-81btubs 5O-Jb cube 1 Gallon I-Ib print 20-Ib cans 351b Portion pall: Special Usual source oils

4 - 918 Table 3 Foodservlce margarines Margarine Table-grade Whipped Baker's Liquid Packaging Quarters 4-81btubs 5O-Jb cube 1 Gallon I-Ib print 20-Ib cans 351b Portion pall: Special Usual source oils Soybean Soybean Soybean Soybean ""'_ Cottonseed Ccucnseed Cottonseed Com Com Com Com-others Typical melting point (Qf) Polyunsaturates (%) Saturates (%) Product usage Table spread Table spread Cakes Table spread Cooking Icing Cooking Pan frying Cookies Baking Seasoning Yeast-raised Seasoning doughnuts Biscuits (conrinued from page 915) ing properties. These characteristics Pan-and-grill products were develare obtained in most cases by the use oped especially for foodservice use of 10-20% minimum hydrogenated and have become a staple product in biscuits, yeast-raised products and cottonseed oil for a 0' crystal struc- most kitchens (Table 4). Three generother baked products. Baker's mar- rure. 6' is preferred, as these crystals al types of pan-and-grill shortenings garines differ from the other mar- tend to be small, uniform in size and are available: two liquids and a solid. garine products by formulation for lightly knit to produce good plasticity The distinguishing difference plastic consistency with good cream- and creaming properties. between the two liquid types is that one contains salt. Salt enhances the butter flavor to give this product type a more pleasing flavor. Salt can only 80 be dispersed because it is not soluble in oil. Lecithin is added to all the 70 products to provide amisticking prop-... cnies for pan-and-grill use. The liqso --., uid products are probably all soybean... 0 oil because the G' crystal of cotton- T &50 seed produces a thick product that is," not pourable. Cottonseed oil can be 40 used in the solid pan-and-grill prod- 0 UCI. Coconut oil is usually added to of the solid pan-and-grill products to 30 enhance rapid melting characteristics. : ::::: The market share for baking short- 20 enings was estimated to be the same as for pan-and-grill products. Two basic baking shortenings are used in foodservice: an all-purpose shorten- 83 ss ing and an all-purpose emulsified " y,. shortening. The characteristics of - MllIJarine -Salad 01" cooking oils these two shortenings are presented --- Baking and frying -+- All fats Dnd oils in Table 5. The major difference is that mono- and diglycerides are added to the all-purpose emulsified Agure 4. U.S.f.t..nd OUI conlumpuon Shortening. This addition enables the " rt.,. INFORM. Vol. 4. no. 8 (August 1993)

919 operator to prepare moister, high-volume cakes as well as higher-aerated icings and filling with generally better moisture retention than the products made with the standard ali-purpose

5 919 operator to prepare moister, high-volume cakes as well as higher-aerated icings and filling with generally better moisture retention than the products made with the standard ali-purpose shortening. One drawback for the emulsified shortening is that it cannot be used for frying. A predominantly 8' crystal is preferred for both types of baking shortenings for optimum plasticity and creaming properties. For this reason these shortenings are usually formulated with an oil, such as cottonseed oil, that forms B' crystals. The last foodservice product type identified is salad oil (Table 6). Bailey's industrial Oil and Far Products defines salad oils as "oils that will remain substantially liquid in a refrigerator at F and produce a mayonnaise emulsion which is stable at low temperatures." In the past cottonseed oil has been the standard for salad oils, but this position has been eroded to approximately 10% of the salad oil total. Soybean oil has the major share. The fats and oils reviewed to this point have been those purchased by food service operators for use in their kitchens. A somewhat "invisible" foodservice fats and oils usage is that of the fats and oils in prepared products such as mixes for breading, batters, sauces, cakes, yeast-raised products, frozen desserts, etc. Fats and oils are ingredients-in many cases major ingredients-in almost all prepared foods. The prepared foods used in foodservice operations may account for a fats and oil volume greater than the direct purchases already reviewed. Nutritional concerns regarding all food products have been sparked and driven by special interest groups the last several years. Recently, the USDA dietary guidelines were modified; and the "food pyramid" released notes that fats and oils are either naturally occurring or added in all of the food groups. Despite the unfavorable publicity, fats and oil consumption still appears to be increasing. The U.S. per capita consumption of fats and oils since 1975 is shown in Figure 4. The trend is definitely upward for total fats and TabHt4 Foodservlce pan-and-grlll products Pan-and-grill Usual source oil Other ingredients Solids fat index at 50"F at 92 F Packaging Applications TableS Foodservlce baking shortenings Pourable Saltedipoumble Solid Soybean oil Soybean oil Coconut Soybean oil Cottonseed oil Lecithin, color. Salt, lecithin, Lecithin, color, butter flavor, color, buner flavor butter flavor. methyl silicone methyl silicone Gallon Gallon 6-lb can 5 quart 5 quart 3O-Ib pail 17.51b 351b Pan frying Pan frying Pan frying Grilling Grilling Grilling Soups. sauces Seasonings Bun dressing and gravies Soups, sauces Bun toasters Basting and gravies Brush on Brush on Dressing Dressing Com-on-the-cob Basting Popcorn Seafood dip Com-on-the-cob Baking shortening All-purpose Au-purpose emulsified Usual oil sources Other ingredients Consistency Packaging Typical analytical Melting point (of) Solids fat index at: 50 F 80 F 1Q4 F n-monoglycende (%) Applications Soybean Cottonseed Animal fats None Plastic Solid 5Q.lb cube Portion control package None added Cakes Icings Biscuits Cookies Yeast-raised Frying Soybean Cottonseed Animal fats Mono- and diglycerides Plastic Solid 5Q.lb cube Portion control package CU" Icings Biscuits Cookies Yeast-raised INFORM. Vol. 4, no. 8 (August 1993)

920 10.0 8.0 s,0 i 4.0 2.0 0.0 '----'---_---"- '---_--'--_---1. L-' Figure 5. U.S. consumption 81 8J as 87 89 91.-...- Tallow Tropical oils of Mleeted lats and ou, FRY LONGER FRY BETTER MAGNESOLe XL filter powder purifies shortenins and extends its usable life.

6 s,0 i '----'---_---"- '---_--'--_---1. L-' Figure 5. U.S. consumption 81 8J as Tallow Tropical oils of Mleeted lats and ou, FRY LONGER FRY BETTER MAGNESOLe XL filter powder purifies shortenins and extends its usable life. This amazing easy-to-use powder keeps shortening fresh, dear and sparkling dean so food fries up light. crisp, and golden delicious. MAGNESOLe XL reatly works and we can prove it to you. Call Today TOLL FREE and see for yourself. A XL (908) FAX IMU.M INFORM. \obi. 4, no. 8 (August 1993) _:::--_:::: Ji!I'Q. For InformaHon circle it _"'"... _. oils products used for all food products. This upward trend is also evident for products used in the foodservice industry. except for margarine which has a flat trend in per capita usage. Per capita consumption of salad or cooking oils as well as baking and frying fats is still increasing overall. Nutritional studies have indicated thai cholesterol. saturated fats, palmitic fatty acid and trans acids, among others, arc health hazards. The effects of the unfavorable publicity and actions from special interest groups are very evident (Figure 5), Between 1985 and 1986 tallow consumption dropped from 6.7 pounds per person to 2.3. This decrease, which appears 10 be continuing. was spurred by cholesterolintake concerns. Only animals have the ability to produce cholesterol; thus with the release of study results implicating cholesterol-containing fats and pressure from activist groups, food producers rapidly changed from animal fats to vegetable oils wherever possible. Tallow had been the frying fat of preference of many fast-food and other restaurants, especially for french fries. The beefy flavor had been used in many cases by marketing to publicize a perceived product difference. Foodservice operators have replaced tallow with several vegetable oils, primarily soybean, corn and cottonseed oils. About a year later. tropical oils became "suspect" food fats due to their relatively high saturated fatty acid content. Tropical oils consist of coconut, palm kernel and palm oils. Coconut and palm kernel oils are somewhat similar: (a) both have high lauric fauy acid contents, (b) both are very high in total saturates (coconut. approximately 92%; palm kernel, approximately 82%), (c) both hydrolyze to soapy flavors easily, (d) both have sharp melting points and (e) both foam immediately in the fryer when blended with a non lauric oil. Even though palm oil and palm kernel oil come from the same tree. the two oils' characteristics are quite different. Palm oil is less saturated,

921 Table 6 FoodMrVice.. lad oils Salad oils Cottonseed Soybean Com Sunf10wer Polyunsaturates SO-55 3!k;2 5-62 66-7.

7 921 Table 6 FoodMrVice.. lad oils Salad oils Cottonseed Soybean Com Sunf10wer Polyunsaturates SO-55 3!k; Saturates Iodine value AOM stability Reverted flavor Nuuy Beany Musty Nutty Packaging Gallon Gallon Gallon Gallon 17.51b 17.51b 17.51b 17.51b 351b 351b 351b 35th 5 gallon 5 gallon 5 gallon 5 gallon Canola > Earthy Gallon 17.51b 351b 5 gallon Market share <%) Applications '1 Pan frying. salad dressing. mayonnaise. sauces, dips, gravies, baking, cooking pasta 7 has a wider melting range, bas only trace amounts of lauric fauy acid. a high palmitic content and an orange or bloodred color due to its 8- carotene content. Another distinguishing factor is that the palm oil crystal habit is 6', Tropical oils bad been used in foodservice operations, but somewhat sparingly. In Mexican restaurants, coconut oil was the frying oil of preference for taco shells, etc. Coconut oil provided better resistance to breakdown caused by the caustic residue in most corn mas a products. This use was discontinued largely due 10 pressures from the media to discontinue the use of tropical oils. Palm oil had replaced cottonseed oil in many baking shortenings to effect a 8' crystal habit. This practice was discontinued or at least severely curtailed for fear of media pressures. Palm oil also had been used exclusively for pre-frying of frozen french fries supplied to the food service industry. In many cases, palm oil bad replaced tallow for this use due to economic reasons. This indirect foodservice USe of palm oil has diminished also due to media and special interest group pressures. Cottonseed oil usage in food products has shown an increase since This increased usage has to be in part due to its regained status as the preferred product to produce the 8' crystal habit in baking shortenings for the foodservice industry. Americans have altered their eating habits as a result of medical studies. recommendations by government agencies and their interpretations by the media. Many times the American public has been confused by the apparent shifting recommendations from the various agencies. For example in 1977 high polyunsaturated diets were recommended, actually a 2: I ratio of polyunsaturates to saturates. Those recommendations resulted in numerous industry publications which emphasized polyunsaturated fatty acids. Then the recommendation shifted to equal levels of saturates, monounsaturates and polyunsaturates. The reason for abandoning the high-polyunsaturates diet recommendations was that such fatty acids bad been implicated in the promotion of cancer, and more recent studies indicate that altered forms of the poly unsaturates may increase the incidence of heart disease. The altered forms of the polyunsaturates are called trans acids. Naturally occurring monounsaturated and polyunsaturated bonds are cis double bonds with the hydrogens on the same side of the molecule. The chemically altered monounsaturated and polyunsaturated bonds are trans double bonds with their hydrogens on opposite sides of the molecule. trans Acids are created during hydrogenation, a process used to increase the stability or physical form of fats and oils. The studies of trans acids effects have not received intensive media coverage or publicity to date. However, it is expected that these studies probably will create the next wave of changes in fats and oils usage. The changes to eliminate or reduce trans acids could lead to a reversion to naturally occurring oils, to new processes, to new catalysts that might inhibit trans acid development, to genetically engineered oils or to some other development beyond the author's imagination. Foodservice is considered a mature industry but growth continues 10outpace the growth of the U.S. population. Approximately 45% of all food dollar expenditures are now away from home. The foodscrvice industry's 1992 sales totaled $257 billion, and it has been estimated this total will rise to $300 billion by 1995 and to $400 billion in This growth will surcly include new concepts, menu changes and appetites for new tastes which will require more specialty fats and oils. INFORM. Vol (AugU5t 1993)

Raw Materials p. 1 Introduction p. 1 Sources of Fats and Oils p. 1 Vegetable Oil Yields p. 2 Availability of Fats and Oils p. 3 U.S.

Raw Materials p. 1 Introduction p. 1 Sources of Fats and Oils p. 1 Vegetable Oil Yields p. 2 Availability of Fats and Oils p. 3 U.S. Utilization of Edible Fats and Oils p. 4 Characterization of Fats and