TABLE OF CONTENT. Principle #1: Scientific studies and fundamental physiological models form the rationale for periodization..

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2 TABLE OF CONTENT Preface. Introduction Principle #1: Scientific studies and fundamental physiological models form the rationale for periodization.. Principle #2: A macro cycle is like an 8-Layered box. Principle #3: Optimal results are achieved by working with, rather than against, natural cycles.. Principle #4: Optimal results are achieved by planning to create synergy between concurrently performed training elements.. Principle #5: First develop flexibility, AND THEN develop strength, speed, power or endurance. Principle #6: First improve the weak link, AND THEN improve the function of the entire kinetic chain.. References

3 PREFACE The Flexible Periodization Method (FPM) is the first holistic method of periodization dedicated to highly individualized training programs for the fitness client, the world class athlete and everyone in between. Karsten s research, contemplation and application of periodization principles started in the early 90s. It was during his work in the Danish sports system (Team Denmark) where he was hired (in 1999) to create individualized training programs for the Danish world class and Olympic athletes that his focus on individualized training programs was intensified. One characteristic of a good periodization method is that the method provides answers to all the questions a strength coach or personal trainer has during the process of creating training programs. Studying all available literature on periodization Karsten learned a lot, but always felt that something was missing. Around 2004, Karsten realized that a separate system The Flexible Periodization Method - was taking shape. The FPM is characterized by: The allowance for all known loading patterns. Thus, the FPM is a system of systems. Providing guidance on the periodization of all program variables. Identifying individual weak links to avoid a great program with the wrong goals. Not being associated with any specific program the only way a program made with the FPM can be recognized is by the results produced by the athlete/fitness client who is following the program. Olympic medalists in Athens 2004 were some of the first athletes to use the FPM. Since then, many world class and Olympic athletes have benefitted from the highly individualized programs created with this unique method. The Flexible Periodization Method (the book) was released in Part 1 of the book focuses on the principles of the FPM. Karsten has taught these principles in a two-day workshop format together with the rest of the FPM but gradually realized through feedback from workshop participants that the amount of information was so overwhelming that the learning outcome would improve by dedicating a full day to the principles of the FPM. Additionally, he has received ample feedback that many strength coaches/personal trainers are interested in periodization, but they do not necessarily have the time required to create written training programs in a long-term format. Periodization Simplified How to Use the Flexible Periodization Method on the Fly provides an updated and expanded version of the principles behind the FPM (part 1 of the book) and practical guidelines for using these principles without a written training plan. What is a principle? A "principle" is a basic truth, law or assumption (thefreedictionary.com). A "principle" can also mean a "pre-determined or fixed policy or mode of action". The principles of the FPM take either the shape of a basic truth or a mode of action.

4 INTRODUCTION How to Use this Manual Periodization Simplified How to Use The Flexible Periodization Method on the Fly forms the foundation for working with the FPM both if your intent is to create programs on the fly, and/or if you intend to use the FPM to the fullest extent. Using the FPM on the fly Become overall familiar with each principle. Then: 1. Consider any principle that you think would be useful to apply to the program of a current athlete or client. 2. Read the section about that principle. 3. Follow the guidelines for applying the principle that are suggested at the end of each section. Repeat the above process with any other principle should you chose to do so. Using the FPM to the fullest extent: 1. Study all the principles carefully. 2. When you feel that you understand all the principles consider moving forward with one or more of the eight Yes To Strength workshops/manuals that focus on the descriptions of various types of training with the 7 blocks of the Flexible Periodization Method. Periodization of Flexibility Training Why Flexibility is Developed Before Strength, Speed, Power or Endurance Beyond Functional Training - Periodization of Exercise Selection Tempo Matrix - Why Repetition Tempo is Important and How to Periodize it Using The Flexible Periodization Method Maximal Strength - How to Manifest Untapped Potential For Strength Using The Flexible Periodization Method Power - How to Manifest Untapped Potential for Power Using The Flexible Periodization Method Speed and Endurance - Manifest Untapped Potential for Speed and Endurance with The Flexible Periodization Method Needs Analysis for Sports - The Foundation of Success with The Flexible Periodization Method. Are Your Programs H.I.P. How to Create Holistic, Individualized, Periodized Training Programs Using The Flexible Periodization Method.

5 PRINCIPLE #1 Scientific Studies and Fundamental Physiological Models Form the Rationale for Periodization What is periodization? Is there a benefit to creating training programs based on principles of periodization? If so, what are the reasons why periodization is effective? 1a. What is periodization? Appendix 3 provides a review of various definitions of periodization. These definitions are characterized by variations in the exact wording but similarity in meaning and content. The non-technical definition, according to the dictionary, is that periodization is a division into periods. (21) With the FPM, the technical definition of Periodization is a division of a longer training cycle into periods with different goals, structures and content of the training program. These periods, with different goals, different structures and different content are sequenced in such a way that selected physical abilities are maximized at the goal attainment date. 1b. Is there a benefit to creating training programs based on the principles of periodization? Training literature contains many studies that claim to research periodization. Most of these studies focus on resistance training. A much smaller number focus on speed-endurance-cardiovascular training (S.E.C. training). There is some disagreement in the training literature about the conclusions of these studies. Today, 12 periodization systems exist. (41) Major periodization systems include: linear periodization reverse linear periodization daily undulating periodization conjugate periodization block periodization The Flexible Periodization Method Research has been conducted on linear, reverse linear, daily undulating and block periodization. (42) Some researchers conclude that comparative studies of non-varied programs and periodized programs in which serial testing was performed demonstrate that non-varied programs can result in training plateaus, whereas, periodized programs result in more consistent fitness gains. (1)

6 Other researchers are of the opinion that despite the large number of controlled studies on periodization, the scientific evidence for periodization is lacking and that the studies that are conducted mainly serve to prove that variation is important. (38) A real-life training scenario, particularly in the long-term (years) range, is affected by so many factors that it makes scientific studies challenging. Within the FPM, the body of scientific studies is seen as very important and useful pieces of a larger puzzle that must be assembled by the coaches and athletes together to create optimal long-term results. Within the FPM, the following two physiological models are seen as very strong support for periodization as it is defined above. 1c. The Principle of Accommodation Have you ever experienced athletes or fitness clients making initial gains on a new program only to reach a plateau after a few weeks? The Principle of Accommodation, often considered a general law in biology, states that the response of a biological object to a constant stimulus decreases over time. (2) In the case of strength and conditioning or fitness training, the biological object is the human mind-body and the stimulus is the training load. The training load is not a well-defined term. (3) The word load may be understood as the total external force applied TO or BY the human body. (4) The load also has a qualitative component (which structures and systems in the body experience or create the external force). A training load is created through the use of certain exercises, performed with certain intensities, volumes, rest periods and frequencies. Figure 1c-1: The Principle of Accommodation. Figure 1.c-1 shows that as a certain training load is repeated over time, the performance gain decreases and the body s response to the training program diminishes. (2)

7 It is the Principle of Accommodation that is the physiology behind the saying that the best program is the program that you are not using right now. The saying points to the fact that any program gets gradually more ineffective (the performance gains drop) every time it is used. Einstein was quoted for stating that the definition of insanity is to do the same thing, yet expecting a different result. When the athlete/client has adapted to a program and performance gains are low or non-existent, it is necessary to change one or more program variables in order to stimulate new progress. If changes are not made to the athlete s/client s training program despite reduced performance gains, the result is monotonous training. (39) Monotonous training is: not characterized by high levels of fatigue or any other symptom associated with overtraining (see below). an over-adaptation of the central nervous system (CNS) to the same mechanics being repeated over and over. In conclusion, with the FPM, the Principle of Accommodation is viewed to be mainly about the QUALITY of the training stimulus. When the athlete/client has adapted to the program, one or more program variables must be adjusted for the athlete/client to continue making progress towards the stated objective. 1d. The General Adaptation Syndrome Have you ever experienced the situation whereby an athlete/client has great energy in some weeks and then a few weeks later becomes exhausted and maybe even acquires an overuse injury? Canadian biologist, Hans Selye, coined the term General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to describe how the adrenal glands respond with an initial alarm reaction followed by a reduction of an organism s function in reaction to a noxious stimulus. The key to the continued adaptation to the stress is the timely removal of the stimulus so that the organism s function can recover. (5) Former Eastern Block scientists and physicians found similarities between the pattern of the training response in athletes and the stress patterns observed by Selye. According to the General Adaptation Syndrome, there is a three stage response to the stress. (6) Stage 1: Alarm Phase When a new and more intense stress or stimulus (type, volume, intensity) is applied, the first response is the shock or alarm phase that may be characterized by excessive soreness, stiffness and a drop in performance. This phase may last days or weeks. In some cases, the alarm phase is associated with depletion of biochemical substances; for example, glycogen. However, certain texts assert that it has never been proven which substances need to be looked at to understand this process. These texts also deem the GAS as too simple to explain progress. (7) Stage 2: The Resistance Phase At any instant the body has a definite ability to respond and adapt to the training stimulus, termed the Current Adaptation Reserves (CAR). (8) The body adapts to

8 the stimulus through various neurological, bio-chemical, structural and mechanical adjustments leading to increased performance. Examples of such adjustments include increased cardiac output and enzyme concentrations (adaptations to aerobic training) and increased neural drive/neural (9, 10) activation (adaptations to resistance training). In some texts, the resistance phase is referred to as super compensation and is associated with enhanced levels of biochemical substances. Example: One theory of muscle hypertrophy is called the Energetic Theory of Muscle Hypertrophy. According to this theory, muscle catabolism (breakdown) is stimulated by lack of energy for protein synthesis during resistance training sessions. Thus, DURING sessions, muscle protein can actually DECREASE. Then, during the recovery phase, also known as the resistance or super compensation phase, the balance is reversed and protein synthesis exceeds protein breakdown. The results are a net increase in muscle, also known as myofibrillar hypertrophy. (11) Stage 3: The Exhaustion Phase If the stress persists for an extended period of time, the body loses the ability to adapt to the stress and soreness, stiffness, staleness and maladaptation may occur. The exhaustion phase might be seen as the consequence of overwork/overstress that: results from the summation of all stressors from training and daily life reaching a total level that becomes too great and the recovery-adaptive processes begin to fail. can be divided into short-term overtraining - also referred to as overreaching, (acute excessive training or exhaustion ) and chronic overtraining (chronic excessive training). (40) can be divided into general overwork/overstress that affects the whole body and local overwork/overstress that affects one muscle group. (40) is also divided into sympathetic overstress and parasympathetic overstress. While the General Adaption Syndrome may have its shortcomings in completely explaining the body s response to the training stimulus, it is still a useful model for understanding training progress. The curve on Figure 1d-1 (see following page) can be understood on two different levels. The first level is the neurological, bio-chemical, structural and mechanical changes that underlie a second level that consists of easily observable performance changes. In relation to periodization, the General Adaptation Syndrome supports the strategy of alternating periods with an increased, developmental, stressing training stimulus (training load) with periods consisting of a reduced training stimulus that allows the body to recover and super compensate. In simpler terms, we can say that the training stimulus must be strong enough and new enough to stimulate the alarm phase. The training stimulus must be applied repeatedly as long as the athlete/client is in the resistance phase. Lastly, the training stimulus must be removed at the beginning of, or early into, the exhaustion phase. For practical purposes these three phases can be understood in the context of a single workout or to a period of two to three weeks of training.

9 Alarm Phase Resistance Phase Single Workout 2-3 week cycle Soreness stiffness during initial Post workout soreness warm up exercises lasting for 1-2 days Performance increases during Performance increases from specific warm up and during several one workout to the next work sets (pyramid training) (reps, load, time etc) Exhaustion Phase Performance drops, feelings of exhaustion, potential aches/pains Smaller increases in performance leading to no increase or drop in performance and potential injury. Table 1d-1: The Alarm Phase, Resistance Phase and Exhaustion Phase in the context of a single workout or a 2 to 3 week training cycle. Figure 1.d-1: The General Adaptation Syndrome is a model for showing initial performance improvements that gradually taper off and can continue into performance decrements. Within the FPM, the General Adaptation Syndrome is seen to be mainly about the QUANTITY of the training stimulus. When the athlete/client reaches the exhaustion stage, it is not enough to do something different, the athlete/client needs rest or active rest to recover and super compensate. Using Principle #1 of the FPM on the Fly 1. If the athlete/client stops making progress, but is not exhausted then adjust one or more program variables to something that is DIFFERENT yet still supportive of the overall objective. 2. If the athlete/client stops making progress AND is exhausted, then reduce the training load until the athlete/client reports good energy. Adjust one or more program variables to resume developmental training with a slightly different program that is still supportive of the overall objective.

10 PRINCIPLE #2 A Macrocycle is like an 8-Layer Box Layered boxes are a set of boxes of graduated size, each fitting inside the subsequent larger box. A Layered box is an excellent metaphor for the relationship between the quality of the single repetition and the outcome of the macrocycle. Macro Meso Micro Day Figure 2-1: Each larger cycle is made up of the smaller cycles. Each smaller cycle is contained within the larger cycle. The 8 layers of a macrocycle are the macrocycle itself, the mesocycle, the microcycle, the training day, the individual session, the exercise, the set and the individual repetition. The main focus of Section 2 is to define each layer of the macrocycle and provide an understanding of the relationship between them. 2a. What is the macrocycle? The macrocycle (macro = large) is considered the outermost layer of the 8-layered box. A typical macrocycle is composed of a preparation period, a tapering period, a competition period and terminated with an active rest period. Macrocycle Preparation Tapering Competition Active Rest Table 2a-1. A macrocycle consists of a preparation period, tapering period, competition period and active (Adapted from 22) rest period. In sports, the macrocycle is structured around the most important competitions that occur during the year. Depending on the nature of the sport, some authors see a year as one macrocycle with one to three peaks. (23) However, other experts regard a year as one to three macrocycles with each cycle having one peak. In sports, the end goal of the physical preparation is to raise the levels of sport-specific strength, power, speed, endurance or a combination of the four qualities. Optimal improvement of these sport-

11 specific qualities involves FIRST improving other goals like structural strength and stabilizer (tonic) endurance as explained in other sections of this manual. Since the number of physical abilities that can be improved at any one time is limited, the macrocycle is structured as a sequence of training periods with a defined purpose of improving different physical abilities (bio-motor abilities - See Appendix 2). (24) (See Table 2a-2) Preparation Period Mesocycle 1 Mesocycle 2 Mesocycle 3 Mesocycle 4 Stabilizer Endurance Structural Strength Maximal Strength Sport Specific Power Table 2a-2. A macrocycle is a sequence of training periods. (Adapted from 24) As indicated in the Table 2a-2 above, these training periods are called mesocycles. They form the second layer of the 8-layered box. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of the macrocycle are the accumulated improvements of each of the mesocyles. 2b. What is a mesocycle? The ultimate characteristic of a mesocycle is the targeted training adaptations - the specific physical adaptations that are sought in a particular training cycle. In the FPM, a mesocycle is defined as the number of weeks within which the training deals with similar combinations of type2 goals. (See Appendix 2 for a description of type 2 goals.) The mesocycle definition above differs somewhat from those in the training literature, which suggest that the length of the mesocycle be two to six weeks. (25) The duration of the mesocycle is an absolute key to the design of the macrocycle. Each mesocycle must be long enough to allow for stable training adaptations to occur. Stable training adaptations are training adaptations of the required physical abilities that allow for positive improvements that can be maintained throughout the competitive period. The duration of the mesocycles are both science-based and empirically based. They are, in general, 3-12 weeks long depending on the: athlete s/fitness client s training age. athlete s/fitness client s responsiveness. the targeted physical adaptations. the quality and design of the training program. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of each mesocycle are the accumulated improvements of each of the microcycles.

12 2c. What are microcycles? The concept of the speed of accommodation is essential in the relationship between the microcycles and the mesocycle. The speed of accommodation is the number of training sessions it takes for the athlete or fitness client to adapt to a particular program. In order words, the speed of accommodation is the number of workouts it takes for the athlete/fitness client to reach the bottom of the accommodation curve (See Principle #1). It is obviously important that the athlete/fitness client has experienced practically significant adaptations before the bottom of the accommodation curve is reached. There is no clear science on the speed of accommodation, but the factors listed in Table 2c-1 are important: Lower Speed of Accommodation Higher Lower Training Age Higher Higher Complexity of Exercise Lower Lower Initial RPE Higher Lower Skill learning Higher Lower Retention Higher Lower training frequency Higher Table 2c-1: A variety of factors affect the speed of accommodation More specific guidelines for the speed of adaptation are presented in the Table 2c-2: Training Flexibility Strength Jump/throw S.E.C. age (year) Beginner Beginner-intermediate Intermediate-advanced Extreme Table 2c-2: Speed of accommodation based on training age. (26,27,28) The above values are guidelines. To maximize accuracy in the training programs it is essential to observe the athlete s/client s progress to get the best possible understanding of the individual speed of adaptation. Additional considerations to take into account regarding the optimal length of microcycles include: Choosing the right number of sessions is a component of the "art" of program design. A good program challenges (new stimulus) the athlete/client to adapt and gives him/her time (sessions) to adapt (maintaining stimulus long enough) - the right length of the microcycle is a "sweet spot (zone), neither too few, nor too many workouts is ideal. Strategy 1: Change the program while the adaptation per workout is still high.

13 Strategy 2: Change the program when the athlete/client has fully adapted and there is little or no adaptation from the individual workout. The speed of accommodation also has a mental component. Quick adaptation = athlete/client gets bored quickly. Slow adaptation = athlete client likes to keep things the same. When the athlete/fitness client has adapted to the program (for example, after 12 workouts) there should be a change to one or more program variables as previously discussed. Thus, with a change to one or more program variables there is a new period (not with new goals because it is still the same mesocycle) with new content and structure of the training. The number of training sessions it takes for the client to adapt to a specific program is thus a natural unit in the macrocycle. This number of training sessions it takes for an athlete/fitness client to adapt to a program is the definition of the microcycle, which corresponds to the definition found in training literature: a number of training sessions that form a recurrent unit with a period of several days [or weeks]. (23) A program typically includes variation within the theme. Thus, a microcycle is also characterized as described in the box below: A Microcycle is a number of training sessions built around a given combination of acute program variables, which include progression as well as alternating effort (heavy vs. light days). When you plan the actual program based on the number of training sessions for a microcycle, the following general guidelines apply: Exercise variations that are part of the same method-variation are counted separately. Different repetition tempos or contraction types that are part of the same method variation are counted separately. Different intensity zones that are part of the same method-variation are counted separately. Variations of intensity within the same zone are counted together. When exercise variations, repetition tempos and intensity zone are counted separately, the result is overlapping microcycles that work synergistically. Meso 1 Microcycle 1(a) Microcycle 1(b) Microcycle 1(c) Figure 2c-1: Illustration of one mesocycle that consists of three overlapping microcycles.

14 If the total number of training sessions in a mesocycle exceeds the speed of accommodation, the mesocycle then consists of more than one microcycle, each with the same target training adaptation (for example, peak power), but with slight differences in structure and content of the training program. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of each microcycle are the accumulated improvements of each of the training days. 2d. What is a training day? A training day is one or more training sessions, with one or multiple purposes, that are performed on the same day. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of each training day are the accumulated improvements of each of the training sessions. 2e. What is a training session? A training session is multiple exercises that are performed with a well-defined purpose and prescribed rest periods. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of each training session are the accumulated improvements of each of the exercises. 2f. What is a set, or interval repetition? A set or an interval repetition is a series of individual movements (for example bench press or rowing strokes) performed with no or in the case of cluster sets in strength training or jumping/throwing with prescribed, short rest periods. The improvements in physical capacity (bio-motor abilities) at the end of each set or interval repetition are the accumulated improvements of each of the individual movements. In conclusion, there is a direct correlation between the quality of each repetition and the improvements at the end of the macrocycle. Using Principle #2 of the FPM on the Fly 1. Define the length and objectives of the macrocycle. 2. Choose the appropriate content and length of the mesocycles. 3. Initially, use the listed guidelines. Subsequently, observe the athlete s/client s progress to determine the optimal length of the microcycles. 4. Emphasize to the athlete/client the importance of the quality of the individual repetition.

15 PRINCIPLE #3 Optimal Results are Achieved by Working with, Rather Than Against, Natural Cycles Dates for peaking as well as the goals, structures and content of training programs may typically be dictated by competition schedules, work schedules, availability of training facilities and other external factors. However, there is ample information to indicate that timing in both longer (year) and shorter (day) natural cycles may affect an athlete s/client s ability to train and respond to training. The first basic assumption is that better results are achieved if the program design allows the athlete/client to work with, rather than against, these cycles. The second basic assumption is that the athlete/client can work with these cycles by training MORE when s/he has MORE energy and training LESS, when s/he has LESS energy, thereby riding the wave of each cycle. This section discusses: What are some of the natural cycles that may exist? How may these cycles affect the athlete s/client s ability to train, adapt to training or compete? How is program design affected by taking into account various natural cycles? 3a. Annual cycle Have you ever analysed whether or not there are certain periods in the year when your clients make most of their gains in physical capacity? The lowest trainability may be seen during winter months with increases in the spring and a peak during the summer before the trainability drops again in the fall. This variation in trainability might be due to variations in ultra-violet radiation. Treatments with ultra-violet radiation may increase trainability during winter months to the levels of summer months. (29) In support of this information, other research shows that exercise combined with exposure to the sun has a greater effect on stamina, fitness and muscular development than exercise alone. (43) The positive effects of sunlight have been recognized for a long time: If at all possible, expose the naked body to the sun. Man is a creature of light and air and I should therefore recommend little or no clothing when training. The quote above can be found in a highly recommended book, The Way to Live, by George Hackenschmidt, published in Hackenschmidt was a famous wrestler and strongman. Among his accomplishments are a one arm barbell snatch with 90kg and somersaults with 50 pound dumbbells. While ultra-violet radiation appears as a way to maintain a high trainability, it might be prudent to consider the overall training load during fall-winter months to stay within the athlete s/client s current adaptation reserves.

16 Spring- Summer Fall- Winter # of training session per week Duration of training sessions min Table 3a-1: Variation in training frequency and duration of training sessions by season. 3b. Bio-rhythms and lunar cycle Have you ever experienced sessions where your athletes/clients were surprisingly strong? Have you ever experienced sessions where your athletes/clients were surprisingly weak? Bio-rhythms are cycles of approximately three weeks (23 days) in length. Beginning at the birth date biorhythms claim predictable highs and lows of physical capacity, including the ability to handle various amounts of training within a three week time span. (30) According to current science, the theory of bio-rhythms is not valid. (31) However, the importance of organizing training in cycles of approximately three weeks is recognized elsewhere in the literature. Based on numerous recordings of training diaries completed by athletes, it s noted that both injuries and strong performances occur in cycles of three and five weeks. (32) Empirically, three-week cycles are supported by three greats of the iron game : Vasily Alexejev, Louie Simmons and Mel Siff. Louie Simmons has stated: (33) Mel Siff asked how I arrived at our 3-week pendulum system. It was quite similar to that used by the great Soviet Union SHW champion Vasily Alexejev. I stated that after 3 weeks we could not become faster or stronger, so we waved back down and started over. Mel said that Alexejev found the same to be true. It is worth noting that in the famous Tabata study the students improved VO 2 max from mlo 2 /kg/min significantly over the first three weeks then they experienced a tendency to plateau. (36) In the holistic, individualized program design the 3-week cycles are followed by increasing the training load (intensity, volume or intensity + volume) in two to three week waves. Another natural cycle is the lunar cycle, or the female menstrual cycle. Practical experience has shown significant decreases in performance and increased incidence of injury can occur in the days leading up to and during menses. An increase in injury around the days of the menstrual cycle is supported by investigations on Australian elite athletes. (34) There are, however, individual differences. Some women don t experience any problems. (35) The lunar cycle is followed by planning a light week of training to correspond to the days before and during menses.

17 3c. Circadian rhythms Various physiological functions are observed to fluctuate on an approximate 24-hour basis. These fluctuations are called Circadian ("about a day") rhythms. Circadian rhythms are controlled from the suprachiasmatic nucleus as well as genes, but are also entrained by external geophysical stimuli. Motor accuracy tends to be highest in the morning. Most physiological factors like flexibility, strength, peak power, anaerobic power and maximal speed, tend to demonstrate a peak in the early afternoon and late evening, possibly linked to the pattern of core temperature. There is less, if any diurnal variations in aerobic power. Some studies indicate better trainability in the early afternoon and (37, 50) evening. Hypertrophy gains appear to be similar regardless of the time-of day (morning or evening). (47) However, there are also indications that the greatest strength increases occur when testing is performed at the same time of day as the training. (44, 45) Therefore, it can be recommended to train at the same time of day as an upcoming competition if the time of competition is known. (46) The mechanism behind time-of-day effects are not clear, but might be associated with changes in resting levels of hormones: (45) Testosterone, which is important for nervous system excitation and recovery, is higher in the morning, making training-induced increases easier to accomplish during that time period. On the other hand, training later in the day can increase total testosterone production over the entire day. (48) It can be speculated that if there is an excellent endocrine capacity, attempting to peak testosterone levels twice a day may lead to good results. Also, the opposite can be true. If the testosterone level is lower, it might be advisable to train with only one peak, the natural (morning) testosterone peak. Cortisol needs to be low during recovery phases. Cortisol rises in the morning and should naturally diminish throughout the afternoon/evening (when the sun sets). All training stimulates a release in cortisol. Training too late in the day stimulates cortisol at a time when this hormone tends to leave the body. Late day training might be counterproductive to recovery and potentially lead to overtraining. In addition, heightened levels of catecholamines due to training may contribute to sleep disturbances, further impeding recovery. (49) Overall, because of the combination of internal and external influences it is difficult to draw clear scientific conclusions regarding scheduling of training based on circadian rhythms. (37) If you are in a position to make choices regarding time-of-day training, the above studies point to the following guidelines: Train at the same time of day as the competition if the time of competition is known. Since studies overall demonstrate good trainability both earlier and later in the day, there is freedom to schedule the training at times when the individual athlete/client performs best. External factors like work, school or sport specific training sessions clearly affect the available mental and physical energy at various times during the day. If overtraining and sleep disturbances are issues for individual athletes then carefully monitor training responses if training is scheduled after sunset.

18 Using Principle #3 of the FPM on the Fly 1. Reduce the training load during winter months and/or safely expose the athlete/client to ultraviolet radiation. (See reference 44 for details on safe sun exposure.) 2. Within each mesocycle plan two to three week waves of increasing training load and then start over with a lower developmental training load or an actual active rest week. 3. On a given training day, schedule the training session(s) according to the guidelines in section 3c.

19 PRINCIPLE #4 Optimal Results are Achieved by Planning to Create Synergy Between Concurrently Performed Training Elements Have you ever created a training program that included developmental training of more than one biomotor ability within the same week? For example: o o o Flexibility and strength Strength and power Strength and endurance If you answered yes, then you have created programs with concurrently performed training elements. Section 4 provides a look at the dynamics of concurrent training, a brief review of current research on concurrent training as well as main guidelines for actively planning to create synergy between concurrently performed elements. 4a. What are the dynamics of concurrent training? When the training program contains more than one component performed "at the same time" there are three overall scenarios. 1. Synergy = Negative interference = 0 3. Neither interference nor synergy = 2 Physiologically, the concept of "a week" is not important for understanding the three scenarios. The important thing is (assuming that component A occurs before component B): When you engage in a session to develop component B (for example, endurance training), do you still have the acute adaptations (changes stemming from a single workout or even a single set) from the session to develop component A (for example, the strength training) present in the body? Timeline Component A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (component A adaptations) Component B ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ (Component B adaptations)

20 When the athlete or fitness client engages in a session to develop component B while the acute adaptations from the session to develop component A are still present in the body at least six scenarios are possible. 1. The acute adaptation from the session to develop component A is negatively affected (which presumably limits the chronic adaptations to component A). 2. The acute adaptation from the session to develop component A is positively affected (which presumably enhances the chronic adaptations to component A). 3. There is neither interference nor synergy on the adaptations from session A. 4. The performance in the session to develop component B is negatively affected (which presumably limits the chronic adaptations to B). 5. The performance in session B is improved (which presumably enhances the chronic adaptations to component B). 6. There is neither interference nor synergy in session B. Because these acute adaptations range in duration from minutes to hours to days, it becomes important not only to know what bio-motor abilities (physical capacities) are trained within the same week but also how the sessions are distributed within the week and within individual days. 4b. What information is provided from research on concurrent training? Concurrent strength and flexibility training Concurrent strength and flexibility training performed on alternate days can enhance strength gains in beginners compared to strength training only. (51) High volume stretching of the agonists can reduce strength and power of the same muscle groups when stretching is performed immediately prior to the strength and power movement. (52) Shortened antagonist muscles can inhibit strength of the agonist muscle. Stretching the hip flexors prior to a vertical jump and the hamstrings prior to knee extensions may enhance jump height, power output and strength. (53) The study did not report if the stretched muscles were tight or had normal length. Strength and Power Training Under the right conditions a heavier set can have a potentiating effect on a lighter set for up to 10 seconds in the form of increased mean power, increased force, and increased jump height. (54, 55, 56 ) This potentiating phenomenon is called post-tetanic potentiation, or the after-effect of the nervous system. (58) Within the same workout a lighter load may enhance power output with subsequent heavier loads. (57)

21 Strength and endurance training The majority of research on the topic of concurrent training investigated concurrent strength and endurance training. A recent meta-analysis of studies of concurrent training (2012) offer the following guidelines: (60) Overall effects Power is more susceptible to decrements than strength or hypertrophy the researchers suspect that the effect is through an attenuation of contraction velocity or rate of force development. (60) VO 2 max is not negatively affected by concurrent training and endurance performance could even be augmented by an increase in the area of type 2a fibres, gain in maximal muscle strength and rate of force development. (60) Potential sources of interference The studies indicate that the unique physiological and chemical interactions that exist when varied and multiple exercise stressors are placed on a subject can be highly complex and interrelated. There may need to be a particular alignment of training variables and a very small window of opportunity within which a program is effective. (59) Unique and distinct adaptations to the different forms of training coupled with the potential for overtraining is believed to explain any potential interference. Overreaching and overtraining appear to play a smaller part of the negative effects seen in the reviewed studies. The competing adaptations are related to differences in duration and force levels between endurance training and strength training. (60) Some studies have shown that concurrent training increases muscle size only in the type II A fibres, while the strength training group increased size of type I, type II A and type II C fibres. This difference appears to represent a cellular adaptation that shows the antagonism of simultaneous strength and aerobic endurance stimuli, since strength training alone produced results in both the type I and type II fibres. (61) Specifically, increases in muscle hypertrophy appear to be strongly dependent on the activation of a protein complex called MTORC1. High intensity endurance exercise above 70-80% of max HR even with VERY little volume, for example 10 x 6 seconds sprint before OR after lifting in the same session- appears to acutely block the activation of MTOR through various molecular mechanisms. (62) Relating to competing adaptations at the cellular level as the source of negative interference is the effect of training modality The endurance training modality is a primary factor in determining interference running but not cycling results in negative effects on both strength and hypertrophy in the concurrent training group. The difference could be caused by cycling being more specific to the applied tests as well as less muscle damage caused by cycling compared to running. (60) Interference effects are body part specific and not systemic decrements in strength are seen in lower body, but not upper body exercise after lower body oriented endurance exercise. (60)

22 Regarding the role of overwork/overstress in negative interference When an endurance component is added to the training, strength and muscular growth is blunted in proportion to the frequency of endurance training. (66) If endurance training is performed only two to three times per week and the intensity does not exceed 70% of max HR the risk of negative interference is reduced. (67) Volume accounts for a relatively small portion of any interference effect seen on strength, power and hypertrophy. (60) The risk of negative interference from overtraining is higher for advanced bodybuilders/lifters because higher volume and intensity is needed to stimulate further improvement. (66) One advantage of interval training is that an anabolic response and a cardio respiratory training effect can be created through lower volumes of training. (68) The risk of negative interference from overtraining increases with the duration of the training period (beyond six to seven weeks). (66) Potential sources of synergistic effects Shorter duration-higher intensity interval training does not result in decrements in strength and power and can result in significant improvements in VO 2 max. (60) High Intensity Endurance (>70% of the maximal heart rate) should be performed first in the day and at least 3 hours before strength training when the goal is hypertrophy. This selected molecular factors as AMPK and SIRT1 to return to baseline. MTOR can be elevated for 18 hours after a session. (62) When 45 min legged cycle ergometry is performed six hours before 4 x 7 maximal knee extensions, the subjects saw significantly greater increases in hypertrophy compared to the group that performed strength training only. (63) Perform a strength session immediately after a low-intensity, non-depleting, endurance exercise. This improves endurance adaptations and does not interfere with the pathways regulating strength gains. (62) Heavy Resistance Training (70-80% 1RM) performed immediately after endurance training (consisting of one hour at 65% of VO 2 max) results in enhanced expression of the genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis/oxidative metabolism in recreationally active subjects. (64) There are somewhat contradictory findings on this issue, but it appears that to maximize the anabolic environment after one concurrent training session, endurance training should come before strength training. (64) 4c. What are the practical guidelines for achieving synergy and avoiding negative interference for concurrently performed training elements? Based on the research in the previous section (and more) the FPM applies the following practical programming guidelines to achieve synergy and/or avoid negative interference between various concurrently performed training elements.

23 Currently, we have seen no research on concurrent training that involves more than one mesocycle. Therefore, at this point in time, the available research mainly supports how to train WITHIN a mesocycle, specifically within a week and within the same day. Concurrent strength and flexibility training Particularly in the first six months of training: Perform strength and flexibility training (for muscle groups that are tested as tight) within the same week, on alternate days. If a muscle is not tight by basic standards then long duration (more than 30 seconds) stretching exercise for agonist muscle groups immediately prior to strength/power should be avoided. The opposite is true if the muscle is tight by basic standards. Stretch selected antagonistic muscle groups immediately prior to strength power exercises. Concurrent strength and endurance training If possible, based on the athlete/client objectives, choose strength and endurance exercises that involve non-overlapping muscle groups. Place exercises that involve the same muscle groups on different training days within a week. If hypertrophy is the objective then strength and endurance training in the same workout should be avoided unless the intensity of endurance training is below 70% of the maximal heart rate. If for scheduling reasons strength and endurance is performed in the same workout and hypertrophy/strength is the goal, then the endurance exercise should be performed first (to maximize the anabolic environment). If strength and endurance training is performed on the same day and hypertrophy is the explicit objective, then endurance training should be performed three to six hours before the strength training. Short-duration, high-intensity, interval training can be performed in the same week as training for maximal strength and/or power. If hypertrophy, strength and power are the main goals of strength and conditioning, then perform as little endurance training as possible, no more than two to three workouts. In some athletic environments the sport training provides sufficient conditioning effect and no additional endurance training is needed. If endurance is the main objective, then perform strength training immediately after low intensity endurance exercise. Plan increases and decreases in the training load in waves of two to three weeks of length. Concurrent strength and power training Strength and power training can be performed within the same week. If power is the main goal, then perform strength exercises first to facilitate power performance. If power output with a heavier load is the goal, then use a lighter load first. There is one additional guideline that is used with the FPM for concurrent strength and endurance and concurrent strength and power training. The guideline relates to two statements that we discussed above

24 There may be a particular alignment of training variables and a very small window of opportunity (within which an SEC program is effective). (59) The competing adaptations are related to differences in duration and force levels between endurance training and strength training. (60) If competing adaptations (between strength and endurance training) are related to DIFFERENCES in force levels and duration, it is possible that synergistic adaptations would come about with SIMILAR force levels and duration. More similar force levels and duration when comparing endurance and strength training might be achieved by aligning the length of the set in resistance training with the length of the interval in endurance training. By aligning the length of the set with the length of the interval we ensure that the duration of work is the same, but we cannot ensure that the force levels and thus the mechanical stress are exactly the same. For example, let s say that a set of five reps with a 5RM load takes 20 seconds - five contractions in 20 seconds. Compare that to a 20-second all out sprint on a row ergometer that could involve 20 or more contractions in the same timeframe. It cannot be said that the force levels will be the same in the set of barbell back squats compared to the row ergometer, but it can be said, with great certainty, that they will be more similar than if the set of barbell squats was compared to 20 minutes (or more) of continuous rowing. The guideline of aligning the length of the set in resistance training with the length of the interval in endurance training is the predominant guideline used to combine resistance and power training methods with energy systems training methods in the same meso and microcycles. As a primary pattern, the FPM combines: (please see Appendix 4 for a closer explanation and definition of the different methods) The Repeated Effort Method (long duration) and the Aerobic Method The Repeated Effort Method (short duration) and the Anaerobic Lactic Method The Maximal Effort Method, the Dynamic Effort Method (short and long duration) and the Anaerobic Alactic Method The principle of aligning the length of the resistance training set with the length of the interval is applied in situations where it is the goal to optimally (possibly maximally) develop both the strength component and the speed/energy systems component of training. The principle is not necessarily applied in situations where the goal is to use resistance training to improve endurance performance. Additionally, endurance athletes will need continuous work beyond the length of the resistance training sets. Also, other athletes from interval based sports might, in some rare situations, benefit from continuous endurance training.