DISCUSSION. As indicated by the present investigation of ethnomedico-botanical case

Transcription

1 197 Chapter - V DISCUSSION As indicated by the present investigation of ethnomedico-botanical case studies, a total of 205 species under 76 families have been found to be associated with the herbal remedies of people belonging to the ethnic community, Deories of Assam. A total of 368 prescriptions prepared from these plant species have been found to be used for the treatment of 50 broad diseases. Disease wise uses of plant species prescribed among these people of are shown in table 5.1. These information on medicinal uses of the plant species while compared with some important literatures of Indian Medicinal Plants viz. Kirtikar and Basu (1935), Chopra et al. (1956, 1969), Dastur (1952), Satyavati et al. (1976), Ambasta (1986), Singh and Khan (1990), Thakur et al. (1992), Hussain et al. (1992) and Rai and Sharma (1994), information on 50 plant species as shown in table 5.2 are found to be less known to these literatures. Likewise, the present investigation of ethnobotanical case studies on this ethnic group of this region revealed interesting findings with regards to the use of plants. Some general ethnobotanic studies so far conducted from North East India have covered this ethnic group (Islam, 2000; Islam and Hasin, 2003; Gogoi and Das, 2003; Saikia and Nath, 2003; Singh et al., 2003). However, there appears to be less attention has been paid on these people with regards to their medico ethnobotany (Dutta and Nath 1998). Thus, present investigation provides first hand information on the folklore medicinal uses of many plant species from the region. The medicine men and traditional practitioners are generally found in each of the village of the region. They generally collect plants

2 198 from their surrounding plant communities and process the drug and preserve the drug plant in their homestead gardens. Abrus precatorius, Abrus pulchellus, Adhatoda zeylanica, Andrographis paniculata, Acacia arabica, Aegle marmelos, Aristolochia roxburghiana, Bacopa monnieri, Boerhaavia repens, Cissus quadrangularis, Costus speciosus, Croton tiglium, Eupatorium cannbinum, Kaempferia angustifolia, Kaempferia galanga, Kaempferia rotunda, Plumbago rosea, Plumbago zeylanica, Rauvolfia serpentine and Zingiber zerumbet are some of the commonly found plant species of this category. Occupation of homestead gardens by such wild plants species indicates not only their frequent use by the people, but also their inaccessibility in wild habitats. Many drugs prescribed among the people are prepared in combination, while the fruits of Piper nigrum and rhizome of Zingiber officinale are the secondary components generally used for processing of many drugs. The fruits of Piper nigrum and rhizomes of Zingiber officinale are the products well known for their spice values (Rindly, 1983). These plant products have also been reported to possess curative value against a large number of ailments such as asthma, fever, flatulence, piles, paralysis and indigestion (Kritikar and Basu, 1935). Thus, the use of these plant products in formulation of many plant drugs may be due to their spice and medicinal values, which act not only as flavouring agent and preservative, but also as therapeutic agent for many ailments (Kawai et al., 1994; Semler and Gross, 1988; Winton and Winton, 1939; Ratnawathe and Lewis, 1983). Likewise, they use molasses and honey in making some drugs in the form of pills, which they generally use to preserve for a longer period.

3 199 Out of 205 plant species recorded in this investigation for folklore medicinal use, a large number of plant species are observed to be used for the treatments for more than two diseases (Table 4.1). Even the plant species like Aegle marmelos, Ageratum conyzoides and Lawsonia alba are used for the treatments of more than three diseases. Obviously, such plant species are indicative of wide spectrum curative values. Likewise, another observation seen from the enumeration is that the people of the Lakhimpur district uses highest number of plant species (134), followed by Sivasagar (116), Jorhat (93), Dhemaji (81), Tinsukia (39) and Dibrugarh (38) respectively. While considering the population density of the Deori community among the six districts of the study area, the district Lakhimpur is found to be dominating one. Thus, the highest uses of plant species for the disease treatment in the district may be atributed due to its population density as well as the traditional knowledge base of the people with regards to herbal remedies. As regards, occurrence and distribution, the present investigation also recorded 35 plant species (Table 5.3) of rare categories from the study area. Among these Abrus pulchellus, Andrographis paniculata, Aristolochia roxburghiana, Asparagus racemosus, Bacopa monnieri, Boerhaavia repens, Cissampelos pareira, Croton tiglium, Garcinia pedunculata, Gomphostemma niveum, Homalomena aromatic, Mazus pumillus, Plumbago zeylanica, Rauvolfia serpentina, etc. have already been included in the Indian list of rare and endangered plants (Bhattacharya et al., 1991; Mao et al., 2009; Chowdhury, 2005).

4 200 The present investigation further showed morphological variabilities of a number of plant species growing wild in the study area. Prominent among them are Costus speciosus, Paederia foetida and Pogostemon benghalensis. A total of seven morphological variants recognized for these plant species, viz. three for Costus speciosus, two for Paederia foetida and two for Pogostemon benghalensis, were further studied for their foliar micro-morphological characters like epidermal cells, stomatal and trichomes. These characters also evidenced the existence of infraspecific categories of these species in the study area. The salient characters of the variants of the species on the basis of studied characters are as follows: Costus speciosus: Stem length average 3.5 m and diameter average 10 cm; leaf size: 41 x 15.8 cm; stomatal size: (2.7 ±.25 x 15 ±.22)µm; stomatal frequency: 1 ±.02 in adaxial surface and 6 ± 1.3 in abaxial surface; stomatal index: 2.70±1.23 in adaxial surface and ±1.5 in abaxial surface Variant I. Stem length average 3 m and diameter average 7 cm; leaf size: 29 x 7 cm; stomatal size: (2.1 ±.28 x 1.1 ±.25)µm; stomatal frequency: 2±.05 in adaxial surface and 8 ±1.8 in abaxial surface; stomatal index: 2.80±.25 in adaxial surface and 6.80 ±.89 in abaxial surface Variant II. Stem length average 2 m and diameter average 10 cm; leaf size: 34 x 11 cm; stomatal size: (2.7 ±.25 x 1.5 ±.15)µm; stomatal frequency: 1±.03 in adaxial

5 201 surface and 6 ±1.5 in abaxial surface; stomatal index: 7.60±1.15 in adaxial surface and ± 1.3 in abaxial surface Variant III. Paederia foetida: Leaf shape lenceolate and apex acute; Stomatal size: (15.6 ± 1.3 x 10 ± 1.5)µm; stomatal frequency in abaxial surface: 12 ± 1.4; stomatal index:15.38± 0.9 in abaxial surface Variant I. Leaf shape sub-cordate and apex acuminate; Stomatal size: (15.6 ± 1.6 x 9.1 ± 1.2)µm; stomatal frequency in abaxial surface: 8 ± 1.8; stomatal index: 12.5± 1.3 in abaxial surface Variant II. Pogostemon benghalensis: Leaf-margin biserrate; stomatal size: (2.7±2.5 x 1.5±.22) µm; stomatal frequency: 2±.02 in adaxial surface 12±1.3 in abaxial surface; stomatal index: less than one in adaxial surface and 19.35±1.5 in abaxial surface Variant I. Leaf-margin serrate; stomatal size: (2.1±.28 x 1.1±.25) µm; stomatal frequency: 3±.05 in adaxial surface 30±1.8 in abaxial surface; stomatal index: less than one in adaxial surface and 23±.89 in abaxial surface Variant II.

6 Table 5.1. Disease wise use of plant species Diseases (Broad) Number of plant species Appetite 03 Asthma 04 Bites 08 Bodyache 05 Boil 08 Breast milk problem 04 Burn 03 Cancerous disease 04 Cold and cough 18 Common Fever 08 Contraceptive 04 Cut and wounds 12 Diadetes 10 Diarrhea and dysentery 50 Ear problem 04 Eye problem 03 Fracture 06 Gall bladder stone 01 Gastric 07 Gynocological problem 18 Hair problem 07 Heart diseases 04 Hydrophobia 02 Hypertension 04 Jaundice 05 Contd..

7 Diseases (Broad) Number of plant species Kidney stone 04 Leucorrhea 06 Liver problem 05 Malaria fever 06 Measules 02 Menstruation problem 15 Mouth problem 04 Mumps 01 Nervous problem 05 Piles 06 Pneumonia fever 18 Respiratory problem 03 Rheumatic pain 06 Sinusitis 03 Skin diseases 10 Small pox 01 Stomach problem 22 Throat problem 05 Tooth problem 07 Tuberculosis 04 Urinary problem 16 Vaterinary problem 05 Water infection 02 Worm 22 Wound swelling 05

8 Table 5.2. Plant species with less known to the literatures of Indian Medicinal Plants Name of the plant species Plant part(s) Ailments used Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Root, Seed Leucorrhea, Diabetes Ageratum conyzoides L. Leaf, Root Cut wound, Viral fever, Cough, Dysentery Averrhoa carambola L. Fruit Diarrhea, Piles, Gall bladder stone Bambusa balcooa Roxb. Leaf, Stem Insect site, Menstruation problem Basella rubra L. Leaf, shoot Urinary problem Calamus rotang L. Stem Menstruation problem Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. Leaf, Bark Liver weak, Pneumonia Citrus decumana L. Fruit Diarrhea, Dysentery, Thread worm Clerodendron colebrookeanum (L.) Walp. Leaf High blood pressure, Thread worm, Joint pain Clerodendron siphonanthus R. Br. Leaf, Shoot Abortion, Boil Clerodendron viscosum Vent. Root Alopecia Commelina benghalensis L. Leaf, Sem Eye disease, fever, cut wound Croton caudatus Geisel. Root, Bark Gastritis, Pneumonia Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. Rhizome Wound swelling Desmodium gangeticum DC. Leaf Menstruation problem, Scabies Eleusine indica (L.) Gartn. Root Indigestion Eryngium foetidum L. Whole plant Stomachache Eupatorium cannbinum L. Leaf Menstruation problem Eupatorium odoratum L. Leaf Cut wound Flemingia strobilifera (L.) R. Br. Leaf Scabies Garcinia cowa Roxb. Fruit Dysentery Garcinia lancaefolia Roxb. Fruit Dysentery Garcinia xanthochymus Hk.f. Bark, Fruit Dysentery, Kidney stone Contd...

9 1 2 3 Gomphostemma niveum Hook. f. Leaf Malaria, Insect site, Tuberculosis Grewia disperma Rottb. Leaf Breast milk secretion Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC. Seed, Leaf Round worm, Boil, Common fever Hedyotis lineata Roxb. Whole plant Menstruation problem, Stomachache Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Stem Pneumonia Homalomena aromatica Schott. Leaf, Corm Urinary problem, Gynocological problem Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Leaf Dysentery Kaempferia angustifolia Rosc. Rhizome Diarrhea Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome Scabies Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Tuber Pneumonia Lygodium japonicum Thumb. Leaf Burn Mazus pumillus (Burm.f.) Steenis Leaf Round worm Melastoma malabathricum L. Leaf, Flower Diarrhea, Leucorrhea, Small pox Merremia umbellata (L.) Hall Leaf Abortion, Piles Meyna spinosa Roxb. Fruit Abortion, Dysentery Pandanus foetidus Roxb. Root Pneumonia Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Leaf Menstruation problem (Roxb.) Nees. Prunus persica B. & H. f. Leaf Maggoted wound, Piles, Abortion Rubus moluccanus L. Leaf, Shoot Chilosis, Round worm Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Gaud. Leaf Round worm, indigestion Smilax macrophylla Roxb. Root, Shoot Menstruation problem, Urinary problem Solanum khasianum Clarke. Fruit Toothache Spilanthes paniculata Wall. Ex. Inflorescence Pharyngitis Vitis repens W & A. Leaf, Shoot Diarrhea, Dysentery Zanthoxylum hamiltonianum Wall. Stem, root Pharyngitis, Toothache Zingiber casumunuar Roxb. Rhizome Stomachache Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Rosc. Rhizome Stomachache

10 Table 5.3. Plant species of rare categories in the study area Name of Plant species Plant Folk Claims part(s) used Abrus precatorius L. Root, Seed Contraceptive, Cough, Rheumatism Abrus pulchellus Wall. Root, Seed Contraceptive, Cough, Rheumatism Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Leaf Cough, Sinusitis, Malaria fever Amomum linguiformae Benth. Rhizome Cough, Indigestion Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall & Nees. Leaf, Stem Stomach pain, Appetite, Round worm, loss of appetite. Aristolochia roxburghiana Klotz. Leaf, Root Round worm, Breathing problem, tonsillitis Asparagus racemosus Willd. Root Urinary problem Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. Whole plant Paralysis Boerhaavia repens L. Whole plant Urinary problem, Indigestion, Cough Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. Leaf, Bark Liver weak, Pneumonia Cissus quadrangularis L. Stem Bone fracture Crinum asiaticum L. Bulb Urinary problem Croton joufra Roxb. Bark Gastric Croton tiglium L. Leaf, Seed Boil, Nail infection, Hydrophobia Curcuma amada Roxb. Rhizome Stomachache Curcuma caesia Roxb. Rhizome Stomachache, Gastric, cough Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. Rhizome Stomachache, Gastric Elephantopus scaber L. Leaf, Root Stomachache, Dysentery Eupatorium cannbinum L. Leaf Menstruation problem Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. Fruit Cough, Dysentery Gardenia campanulata Roxb. Bark Tuberculosis Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Stem Pneumonia Hemidesmus indicus R.Br. Stem Bone fracture Homalomena aromatica Schott. Leaf, Corm Urinary problem, Gynocological problem Kaempferia angustifolia Rosc. Rhizome Diarrhea Contd

11 Name of Plant species Plant part(s) used Folk Claims Kaempferia galanga L. Rhizome Scabies Kaempferia rotunda L. Rhizome Pneumonia Mazus pumillus (Burm.f.) Steenis Leaf Round worm Myrica nagi Thunb. Bark Cancer (Throat) Plumbago rosea L. Root, Leaf Scabies, Dysentery, Abortion Plumbago zeylanica L. Root, Leaf Scabies, Snake bite, Abortion Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. Root Scabies, Snake bite ex Kurz. Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Gaud. Leaf Round worm, indigestion Zingiber cassumunuar Roxb. Rhizome Stomachache Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Rosc. Rhizome Stomachache

12 202 Based on these interesting findings, information folklore medicinal uses of 105 plant species while compared with the reported literatures for medicinal uses of plants by other ethnic groups of North East India (Barua et al., 2003; Bora, 2003; Choudhury & Neogi, 2003; Das & Sharma, 2003; Hajra & Baishya, 1990; Kharkongor & Josep, 1990; Maikhuri & Ramakrishnan, 1992; Rao and Jamir, 1982; Rao, 1990; Saikia & Nath, 2003; Sharma et al., 2003; Sharma, 2003; Singh et al., 1996; Bhardwaj & Gakhar, 2003; Borthakur, 1996; Borthakur & Goswami, 1995; Islam, 1996; Islam & Hasin, 2003; Kanjilal et al., 2003; Nath & Bordoli, 1993; Pal, 1992; Sharma & Boishya, 1992; Singh et al., 1992; Singh et al., 1997; Singh et al., 2003; Tiwari et al., 1992; Gogoi & Das, 2003), South West India (Rama Rao et al., 2003; Kumar & Pullaiah 2003; Goud et al., 2003; Balu et al., 2003; Thomas & Britto, 2003; Das & Panda, 2003) and abroad, viz. Bangladesh (Partha & Hossain, 2007; Biswas et al., 2010), Nepal (Siwakoti & Siwakoti, 2003; Panthi & Chaudhary, 2003) and Bhutan (Bhattacharyya, 2003), it is revealed that similar uses of a particular plant for the treatment of similar diseases among a large number of ethnic groups were indicated by 44 plant species (Table 4.2). Uses of a particular plant for the treatment of different diseases were also exhibited by 51 plant species (Table 4.2). Likewise, 34 plant species (Table 5.4) were found to be used for the treatment of similar or different diseases by a large number of ethnic groups. These plant species are thus not only under use among the people of this ethnic group of Assam, but also among the other ethnic communities native to India (North East and South West) and abroad either for the treatments of similar and different disease. Thus, the relevance of cross-cultural ethnobotanic studies in assessing and authenticating

13 203 folklore claims of plants indicated by many other workers (Jain and Saklani, 1989, 1994; Begum and Nath, 2000) in many plant species has also been established in this study. Authenticity on medicinal values of many of these plant species have also been evidenced by their biological activities (Table 5.5). Phytochemical survey of folklore medicinal plants is an important area of medicinal plants exploration. Thus, based on the results of ethnobotanical study, an investigation on the phytochemical survey of 164 plant species were conducted for the detection of their biologically active classes of compounds viz. alkaloids, flavonoids and saponins in their extracts. The results of the investigation also indicated the authenticity of the folklore medicinal claims of many plant species. The result revealed that 94 plant species were found positive for alkaloid, 109 for flavonoid and 70 for saponin (Table 4.3). Curative values of medicinal plants are due to presence of various chemical substances found as secondary metabolites in them. These metabolites according to their chemical compositions are grouped as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins. Biological activities of chemical compounds belonging to these classes of compounds are well established (Cordel, 1981; Sneader, 1985). Thus, the possible curative values of many of the folklore medicinal plants are may be attributed due to the presence of compounds belonging to these functional groups. Many plant species of positive tests found in this investigation have also been reported previously (Maiti, 1968; Saxena, 1975; Raffauf, 1970; Rao et al., 1985; Semler and Gross, 1988; Sharma et al., 1982; Wall et al., 1984). However, some plant species of positive tests are not in agreement with those of their previous reports (Chopra et al., 1956; Farnswoth, 1969; Maiti, 1968;

14 204 Saxena, 1975; Raffauf, 1970; Rao et al., 1984; Semwal and Gross, 1988; Sharma et al., 1982; Wall et al., 1984), which may be due to the factors like geographical variation of the species (Nautiyal and Semwal, 1984; Aflatuni et al., 2000), stage of growth of the plant species (Nautiyal and Semwal, 1984) and parts to parts variations of phyto-constituents (Arnold et al., 1977). No work on phytochemical investigations leading to identification of these compounds have been so far reported for Callicarpa macrophylla, Eryngium foetidum, Gophostemma niveum, Hedyotis scandens, Lygodium japonicum, Mazus pumillus, Meyna spinosa, Sarcochlamys pulcherrima, etc. Thus, the present findings on presence or absence of alkaloids, flavonoids and saponins on these plants species represent first hand information. Likewise, these plant species those showing positive indications for these classes of compounds deserve special attentions for their detail phytochemical studies. However, 11 samples represented by 11 plant species although having folklore use showed negative results for all the classes of compounds tested indicating that the activities may be due to the compounds other than the presently tested ones. Meanwhile, 122 samples represented by 111 plant species having folklore use have been found to be positive for two classes of compounds indicating that the possibilities for the therapeutical activities of these plants parts are more encouraging which may be due to the presence of compounds belonging to either single or both the groups.

15 Table 5.4. Plant species used as folk medicine by six or more numbers of ethnic groups Plant species Numbers of ethnic group used Abrus precatorius L. 7 Achyranthes aspera L. 11 Acorus calamus L. 14 Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. 9 Ageratum conyzoides L. 10 Aloe vera L. 6 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Amaranthus spinosus L. 8 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. 7 Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall & Nees. 9 Aristolochia roxburghiana Klotz. 10 Asparagus racemosus Willd. 13 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 13 Bombax ceiba L. 7 Bryophyllum calycinum Salisb. 7 Calotropis gigantea R. Br. 14 Carica papaya L. 9 Cassia alata L. 6 Cassia fistula L. 7 Clerodendron viscosum Vent. 7 Costus speciosus (Koeing) Sm. 9 Cynodon dactylon Pers. 10 Cyperus rotundus L. 6 Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. 8 Eclipta alba Roxb. 12 1`0 Contd.

16 Plant species Numbers of ethnic group used Euphorbia hirta L. 9 Ficus glomerata Roxb. 6 Hydrocotyle asiatica L. 14 Leucas aspera Spreng. 7 Moringa oleifera Lamk. 6 Paederia foetida L. 8 Rauvolfia serpentina Benth ex 6 Scoparia dulcis L. 7 Tinospora cordifolia Miers. 8

17 Table 5.5. Biological activities corroborative of folklore medicinal claims of some plant species used by the Deories of Assam Plant species Abelmoschus moschatus Medic. Plant part(s) used Folk claims Biological activities with reference(s) Root Asthma, Jaundice, gonorrhea. Abrus precatorius L. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic. Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Boerhaavia L. repens Root, Seed Leaf Leaf Abortion, dysentery, urinary problem, diabetes. Diabetes, abortion, bacterial dysentery. Jaundice, urinary problem Asthma, chornic bronchitis, diseases of the mouth, fever. Adrid, alexiteric,diuretic, emetic. Jadhav, Aortifacient, Hussain et al., Analgestic, antifertility agent, Johri et al., Seetharam et al., Acrid, antiinjlammatory, antihelmintic. Jadhav, leaf Hypoglycemic activity Hussain et al., Bark Root Whole plant Malarial fever, hypotensive, enlarged spleen. Diabetes, epilepsy, rheumatism, night blindness. Dysentery, Diseases of the boold and eye, tumour. Asthma, headache, post natal pain, low blood pressure, insect bite Cassia alata L. Leaf Ringworm, hypertension, fever. Ringworm, eczema, skin diseases, snake bite. Antimalarial, Allen et al Aphrodisiac, antioxytoxic. Hussain et al., Aphrodisiac, appetizer, astringent. Jadhav, Anti viral activity. Hussain et al., Antifungal, Hussain et al., Antifungal, antiparasitic, Astringent. Jadhav, Contd.

18 Cassia fistula L. Fruit Burning sensation, cardiac disorder, gout, rheumatism. Abotifacient, antiinflammatory, antipyretic. Jadhav, 2008 Leaf Fever, constipation. Antifungal, antiviral. Costus speciosus (Koeig) Sm. Cucurma longa L. Rhizome Jaundice, promote urination, wounds, noseache. Rhizome Bone fracture, epilepsy, leucorrhoea. Houttuynia cordata L. Leaf Throat problem, diuretic Mimusops elengi L. Bark Dental trouble, diarrhea, dysentery, pyorrhoea Moringa oleifera Lamk. Root Amenorrhoea, asthma, bronchitis, diarrohoea Hussain et al., Antihelmintic, astringent, expectorant, febrifuge. Jadhav, 2008 Antibiotic, antiinflamatory, Hussain et al., 1992; Jadhav, 2008 Diuretic, antiinflammatory. Jadhav, 2009 Acrid, anthelmintic, astringent, cooling. Jadhav, 2008 Acrid, antiinflammatory, bitter,carminative, diuretic. Jadhav, 2008 Bark Ringworm Abortifacient, antifungal, bitter, thermogenic. Jadhav, 2008 Paedeia foetida L. Leaf Swelling, toothache, post natal pain Plumbago zeylanica L. Root Piles, abortion, dysentery Tinospora cordifolia Miers. Stem Diabetes, constipation, jaundice, vomiting Anti-inflammatory, diuretic. Hussain et al., 1992 Antimicrobial, alternative, antihelmintic, bitter. Hussain et al., 1992; Jadhav, 2008 Bitter, diuretic, stimulant, stomachic. Jadhav, 2008