Other Papers. Gender, Machiavellianism, study major, and fear of success

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1 Other Papers Polish Psychological Bulletin 2007, vol. 38 (1) Eugenia Mandal* Gender, Machiavellianism, study major, and fear of success The paper presents the results of research of fear of success in Polish students. The subjects were 208 university students of psychology, pedagogy, political science and physical education at the School of Physical Education. The projective method by Horner (1972, 1978) was used. The analysed variables were: sex, study major, average marks, locus of control, Machiavellianism, masculinity and femininity. Fear of success was observed in more than half of the investigated students more frequently in men (62%) than in women (48%). In men the fear of success occurred more frequently and intensely. In the multiple regression analyses showed that sex (male) and Machiavellianism are predictors of the fear of success. The fear of success occurred the least frequently in the students of physical education. Keywords: fear of success, gender, masculinity-femininity, Machiavellianism Introduction It was Sigmund Freud who, based on his clinical experience, paradoxically described results that might be caused by success and who reported stories of patients literally devastated by success. Mental disorder appeared in those people the moment they achieved success which they had been striving for. Associating success with envy, revenge or fear of punishment not only did not allow them to enjoy what they had achieved, but it made them abandon their aspirations and behave in a way that shattered their success. The fear of success consists in expectation that being successful will cause negative results causing much more unpleasantness than the lack of success. However, it is not identical with anxiety for failure, lack of task activity in general or with longing for the proverbial peace and quiet. It is rather connected with experiencing conflicting feelings of both desire for success and a fear of it and with anticipating and experiencing high psychological costs. In consequence, people who are afraid of success do not frequently realize their potential possibilities because they resign from their aspirations and behave in a defensive way (Horner, 1972, 1978). In her research into motivation of achievements in the 1970s, Horner (1972, 1978) took up the notion of the fear of success as strongly connected with the role of women whose traditional place in society is in conflict with being successful. In her investigations she used a simple procedure in which women and men were supposed to finish a story about Anne (John) who is the best medical student. It appeared that as many as 65% of female students and only 10% of male students finished the story in a pessimistic way saying that the woman who was successful became lonely, ill, neurotic or she eventually lost her high social position. According to Horner, those were indications of the fear of success strongly connected with the stereotypical understanding of a woman s role. This fear in women is strongly connected with the sense of loss of full femininity and success is perceived as threatening this femininity. In fear of being accused of a lack of femininity women try hard to show the environment that despite being successful they still remain women, being interested in cooking, sewing, knitting and doing homework with their children. The origin of the fear of success in businesswomen is explained in the behaviour of their life partners. Most frequently they tolerate with difficulty such a situation when their wives gain a better professional position and earn more money than they do as there is a social stereotype * Institute of Psychology, University of Silesia, Katowice

2 about an advantageous domination of man in a relationship (Gonzalez, 1988; Komarowsky, 1973). The fear of success also occurs in men. Gender differences include the kind of expected negative consequences of success. In women this fear is caused by the concern about social rejection and loss of attractiveness for the opposite sex, in men it is caused by the uncertain value of success itself. The concern about negative consequences of success in men refers not so much to the fear of self-depreciation in the male role, but to the fear of continuously proving themselves and a lack of a sense of security in the situation of success (Balkin, 1986, 1987; Paludi, 1984; Rothman, research done in the 1980s (Paludi, 1984) showed a tendency to the fear of success in a higher percentage of men than Horner claimed (1972, 1978). The analysis of 64 investigations showed that on average 45% of men and 49% of women revealed the fear of success. The fear of success may also be explained in terms of avoidance of what is atypical of one s own sex. A woman athlete may be afraid that her figure is not very feminine, a woman engineer may fear that working on a building-site makes her masculine. The fear of success may be connected with a conviction that high achievements, especially in domains not traditional for one s own sex, diminish attractiveness for the opposite sex and decrease the chance to find a life partner. It turns out that such fears are not completely unfounded. As research shows, a person who is successful in a task inconsistent with their gender role is evaluated as definitely unattractive in the role of a partner, and a woman taking the role traditionally reserved for a man (suggesting a date, buying drinks, etc) is definitely less attractive and desirable for him (Cherry, Deaux, 1978; Pfost, Fiore, 1990). The closest environment might adopt aggressive or defensive attitudes towards a successful person, connected with withdrawal. Such attitudes come from a conviction that one is not compatible with achievement. It might lead to loneliness. What sometimes may appear troublesome for a person experiencing a quick success in a certain domain is a strongly positive reaction of the environment: admiration, compliments and popularity making them embarassed. Numerous data show that fear of success is a complex phenomenon. Since the very beginning there have been numerous discussions and controversies surrounding this concept, both of a theoretical and methodological nature. Among others, attention has been given to a similarity of the concept of fear of success and the concepts Fear of success 41 of anxiety for failure or concern about social rejection. Identical or similar behaviour might be both a manifestation of fear of success and anxiety for failure. It has been emphasized that fear of success might mean a situational motivational conflict between a need for achievement and a need for affiliation. The assumption has been criticized that the fear of success construct should be understood as a relatively persistent psychological predisposition. Because the dubiety is concerned with the small degree of accuracy in the predication of behaviour in situations of competing for achieving success (Gelbort, Winer, 1985; Cook, Chandler, 1984; Hyland, 1989; Sancho, Hewitt, 1990). The projective method proposed by Horner for studying this construct has also been criticized, instead questionnaire methods have been suggested ( Wheeler, 1975). However, independently of numerous critical opinions the interest in fear of success attracted psychologists attention to the complex mechanisms that might restrain or hinder people from the realization of their set goals and achievement of success. Those mechanisms seem to be especially important in contemporary Poland where a lot of people perceive the ongoing economic changes as a challenge connected with the necessity of an evaluation of their own potential and prospects in the new socialeconomic conditions. In Poland the fear of success has not been investigated up till now. The objective of the presented study was determining the range of the phenomenon in Polish students of different majors from the perspective of their gender, personality variables (Machiavellianism, locus of control, masculinity and femininity) and other individual variables (average marks and interests, ie specificity of majors). The quantitative analysis was extended by the analysis of the fear of success content. Majors differing in their specificity of success in the given domains of study were selected for investigations: psychology, pedagogy, political science and physical education (at the School of Physical Education). Fear of success was analyzed in the context of the gender and gender identity variables not only because of the incessant customary changes occurring in the world, but also because of the Polish specificity connected with a high social position and professional activity of women. It was supposed that according to the trends noticed in the Western research the number of women and men experiencing fear of success would be approximate. A hypothesis was put forward that both mental femininity and masculinity would be connected with fear of success to a similar extent, but the content of the fear would be different.

3 42 The choice of the locus of control variable was motivated by the fact that it is considered significant not only in a subject s setting of goals, but also in their attribution of experienced successes and failures. A hypothesis was put forward that people of external LOC would reveal higher intensity of fear of success. It may justify the tendency of people of external LOC towards external attribution and their dependence on other people s opinions. At the same time, assuming personal responsibility for their own achievements, people of internal LOC can more easily distance themselves from predicted negative consequences of success. The variable of Machiavellianism was also chosen. Machiavellianism is a complex personality system characterized by, among others, exceptionally great drive for personal success and a strong tendency towards manipulation of others. Machiavellian people have a specific vision of the world and other people. They are highly suspicious. However, is it possible that people who strive for success and want it persistently are not afraid of or do not take into account its possible negative consequences? Therefore, a hypothesis was put forward that both machiavellian and nonmachiavellian people manifest fear of success. The choice of the study major variable was motivated by the different specificity of success in different domains (eg, in politics, sport, in the teacher and psychologist professions). The study average marks were also analyzed. Because high academic achievements may develop selfconfidence. It was supposed that people with high study average marks would experience fear of success to a lesser degree. Method The projective method for studying the fear of success suggested by Horner (1972, 1978) was used in the research. It consists in finishing by an investigated person of a story : At the end of the first year of study of... (the investigated person s major) it turned out that... (a male or female name in accordance with the sex of the investigated person) achieved the highest average marks among the first year students. What happened next? Despite a lot of deficiencies indicated in the literature the projective method by Horner (and not the questionnaire method) was decided on, because the aim of the study was learning not only the intensity of fear of success, but also its content and the studied people s free associations connected with success achievement. In the analysis of the fear of success, the author s own quantitative and qualitative indicators prepared for the research were used. Eugenia Mandal The quantitative indicators were determined using the method of competent judges on the basis of the number and dramatic development of the associations connected with the exposed story and described by the subjects. The quantitative indicator determined the intensity of the fear of success on a 4-point scale as : very high intensity of fear ( 2 points) when the subjects described more than one negative event or gave one but dramatic ending, high intensity of fear ( 1) when the subjects gave one negative event. Values to the contrary were also assumed : lack of the fear of it was determined when the subjects described one positive event and very positive associations more than one event or when they gave one but very positive event. Qualitative indicators were used to analyse the content of the associations with success given by the subjects. They were prepared using the method of competent judges who analysed and grouped the content of the events described by the subjects. Thus, in the obtained material, the most frequently appearing content elements of the fear of success were isolated: social and family difficulties (eg, loneliness, failed marriage, lack of offspring), life difficulties (eg, an accident, illness, death, addictions, cessation of study, unwanted pregnancy), envy on the part of other people (eg, intrigues, gossip, jealousy), struggle for maintaining the achieved position (eg, necessity for continuous study and hard work, competition), lack of faith in one s own success and negation of success (eg, error in average mark calculation). What was diagnosed in the investigated people was : intensity of masculinity (M) and femininity (F) and gender identity (using the Bem Sex Role Inventory, in the Polish adaptation by the method of Delta Questionnaire by Rotter, 1966, in the Polish adaptation by Drwal, 1979) and the intensity of Machiavellianism (Mach) (using the method of Mach IV by Christie and Geis, 1970, in the Polish adaptation by Pospiszyl, 1985). The following data were analysed: subject s gender, study major, average marks (AV.) in the first year of study. Participants The subjects were 208 second year students (150 women and 58 men) of different university majors: political science (60 people: 27 women, 33 men), psychology (43 people: 36 women,

4 7 men), pedagogy (57 people: 50 women, 7 men) and physical education at the School of Physical Education (48 people: 37 women, 11 men). In the description of the studied group, the intensity of the analysed variables depending on the major was compared. Thus: masculinity in the highest average intensity characterised in turn the students of: physical education (M=53.35), psychology (M=48.84), political science (M=47.40), and pedagogy (M=44.19). The students of the School of Physical Education were significantly: H(3.208)=32.20, p<0.01 more masculine than the remaining students (in the post hoc tests p<0.05), especially more so than the students of pedagogy (in the post hoc tests p<0.01). Femininity in the highest average intensity characterised in turn the students of: psychology (F=57.17), pedagogy (F=54.89), physical education (F=54.75) and political science (F=52.20). The students of psychology were significantly: H(3.208)=15.30, p<0.01 more feminine than the students of political science (in the post hoc tests p<0.01). Machiavellianism in the highest average intensity characterised in turn the students of: political science (Mach=100.86), physical education (Mach=98.69), pedagogy (Mach=93.75) and psychology (Mach=93.20) for H(3.208)=15.70, p<0.01. The students of political science showed a significantly higher intensity of Machiavellianism than the students of psychology and pedagogy (in the post hoc tests p<0.01). The comparison of the mean values for the locus of control did not show statistically significant differences for the studied groups of students of different study majors: H(3.208)=4.77, p statistically insignificant. The analyses of correlations carried out simultaneously showed a significant relation of femininity with a low intensity of Machiavellianism (r= 0.213, p<0,01) and a statistical tendency for the relationship of masculinity with a high intensity of Machiavellianism (r=0.128, p<0.06). Fear of success Results 43 Among all the subjects, the fear of success was observed in 108 people (51.92%), whereas positive associations connected with success were found in 100 people (47.18%). In women the fear was observed in 72 people (48%) and lack of the fear in 78 people (52%), whereas in men the fear appeared in 36 people (62%) and it was not found in 22 people (38%). In the group of women, high intensity of the fear ( 2) was revealed in 22 women (14.67%) and lower intensity of fear ( 1) in 50 women (33.33%). Whereas in the group of men, high intensity was present more frequently in 15 men (25.86%) and lower intensity in 21 men (36%). Very positive associations with and only in 5 men (8.62%), whereas positive (28%) and 17 men (29.31%). In the analysis of the obtained data, a stepping analysis of multiple regression of all independent variables for the dependent variable intensity of the fear of success (or its lack) was carried out. In the analysed model, the considered variables explained 11% of the fear intensity variances R=0.33; R²=0.11, p< The predictor of the fear of success, ie lack of positive and presence of negative associations with success, is a machiavellian personality ( = 0.178; p<0.01) and sex (male) ( = 0.156; p<0.04), whereas the predictor of lack of the fear of success, ie existence of positive associations with success ( =0.167, p<0.02), is studying physical education at the School of Physical Education. Study average marks (AV.) did not prove to be a predictor of the fear of success. And neither were: other study majors, locus of control (LOC), masculinity (M) or femininity (F) (see Table 1). The additionally made correlational analysis showed a significant negative correlation (r= 0.214; p< ) of Machiavellianism Table 1 Summary of the results of multiple regression (final step) for the dependent variable of associations connected with success (from +2 lack of fear of success to 2 fear of success) Variables B t p Femininity Locus of control Machiavellianism * Average marks Sex (male) * Pedagogy The School of Physical Education * R 2 =0.11, p<0.001.

5 44 and femininity and a statistical tendency for masculinity and Machiavellianism (r=0.129; p<0.06). The content analysis of the fear of success in the students showed that among all the content elements of the fear of success the investigated people most often 50 people (20.04% of all the subjects) pointed at difficulties in social and family life of successful people. There were statements, eg: She lost her friends, She became an unpopular person, our scholarship holder has grown a little too big for his boots, her life was reduced to four walls of the library... she has a PhD degree... what was ahead of her was a post-doctoral degree and further vegetation, he gained a lot of so-called friends who wanted to take advantage of his popularity, he felt beset, he led a lonely life till his death, she became professor, she dealt with politics, however, she was single and that was why some looked at her with disgust as the chief of the commission for family matters, men were scared off by her high intelligence quotient, finally, he found a job in Champion hypermarket... his wife felt lonely because of his continuous absence so she started to be unfaithful... he got divorced. More women 37 people (24.67%) than men 13 people (22.41%) pointed at this content of the fear. Among the people experiencing the fear in this way, women were predominant, 37 (74%), and men amounted to 13 people (26%). Generally, however, the gender differences were not statistically significant ( ²=0.1162; p statistically insignificant). According to the Mann-Whitney test, the people pointing at possible social and family difficulties were characterised by lower intensity of mental masculinity (M=45.46) than the remaining people (M=49.05) (z=2.732; p<0.006). Simultaneously, the people revealing this aspect of the fear were characterised by higher intensity of Machiavellianism (M=99.24) than the remainig people (M=96.07) (z= 1.959; p<0.05). According to the chi-square independence tests, among all the 60 students of political science Eugenia Mandal as many as 20 (33.33%) had a sense of social and family difficulties that successful people might experience ( ²=3.989; df=1, p<0.04). Whereas, among the remaining students, the people manifesting such associations comprised the total of 30 (20.27%). However, among 48 students of the School of Physical Education only 5 people (10%) declared this content aspect of the fear of success ( ² by Yates=5.408; df=1; p<0.02). Simultaneously, according to the Kruskal- Wallis ANOVA rang H(3.208)=32.204; p< (masculinity x study major), the students of the School of Physical Education were significantly differentiated from the students of pedagogy (M=44.19), political science (M=47.40) and psychology (M=48.83) by higher intensity of masculinity (M=53.35). Whereas, according to the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA H(3.208)= ; p<0.001, the students of psychology were significantly more feminine (M=57.11) than the students of political science (M=52.20). Nevertheless, they did not show this content aspect of the fear in the most numerous way. Whereas, according to the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA H(3.208)=15.700; p<0.002) (study major Machiavellianism), the students of political science (M=100.86) were characterised by significantly higher intensity of Machiavellianism than the students of psychology (M=93.20) and pedagogy (M=93.75). The mean intensity of Machiavellianism in the students of the School of Physical Education was slightly lower than that in the students of political science and it amounted to M= Figure 1 illustrates the profiles of standardised mean values for the people who revealed the fear of success in the aspect of social and family difficulties and the people not revealing this aspect. 41 people (19.71% of the subjects) pointed at life difficulties as possible negative effects of being successful. They wrote, for example, alcohol and drugs appeared the function of the first addiction was relaxation and of the second one studying, he met a new friend beer, after failed attempted suicide she started psychiatric mean value of standardised variables M F LOC MACH AV. SEX POL PSYCH. PED. PSYCH. lack of fear of success fear of success Figure 1. Factors influencing the element of the fear of success social and family difficulties

6 treatment, now she is being treated in a detox centre, unfortunately, after six months she appeared to be pregnant, he got an anonymous parcel, and after a few days he died of the lung pulmonary of anthrax, he was enlisted by the Russian secret service, he met some young people... they turned out to be members of a sect, nobody liked him as he was a conceited buffoon, his friends turned him out of their football team, eventually he hanged himself, he was hit by a car, when he got home he learnt that his beloved dog had been run over by a car, on the bus a pickpocket stole her purse with all her money, after ten years he could buy only a studio flat, he was out of work with nothing to live on, he was maintained by his parents, he decided to be a tramp, she jumped out of the window of her own flat, she had to quit her studies and go to China with him. The statistical analysis showed that there were statistically significant gender differences ( ²=13.827; df=1, p<0.0001) referring to this content aspect of the fear. Generally, it appeared three times as frequently in the group of men in 21 people (36.21%) and more rarely in women in 20 people (13.33% of all the women). Among the people pointing at life difficulties, there were 20 women (48.78%) and 21 men (51.22%). The data obtained in the Mann-Whitney test indicated that the people emphasising life difficulties in the content of the fear were characterised by higher intensity of Machiavellianism (M=100.51) than the remaining ones (M=95.92; z= 2.428; p<0.01). Figure 2 illustrates the profiles of standardised mean values for the people revealing the fear of success in the aspect of life difficulties and those not revealing this aspect. The struggle to maintain the achieved position as a content element of the fear of success occurred in 36 people (17.31%) among all the subjects. They wrote, for example, she thought only about how to improve her qualifications, to be better and better, he felt under pressure, after all he was the best, but the Fear of success 45 next end-of-term examinations were a disaster, he was under pressure and wanting to make up for the backlog he started to take amphetamine, she did not watch TV or listen to the radio, but she kept on reading, she was only interested in classes, she was a living encyclopaedia, there were moments when she felt lost in all that, she was fed up, she wanted to get enough sleep... she was very afraid of the end-of-term examinations, she wondered if her average marks would be so high the following year as well, the next year she did not do her best, which resulted in slight lowering of her marks,... at university everybody forgot about her success as Jan was a new hero. There was a significant statement of a sportsman, a student of the School of Physical Education, pointing out difficult choices connected with maintaining a high position: unfortunately, his dream could not be reconciled with studying, therefore he decided to aply for a dean s leave after finishing his second year of study and to seriously take care of his sports career. He was also successful in his team, and he was awarded what all sportsmen dream of an Olympic medal. Then he resumed his studies... unfortunately, that was an obstacle in his sports career so he chose studies because he thought of his distant future... he knew very well that he had to maintain his family, but he also knew that one cannot live on medals nowadays. He had to sacrifice what he had dreamed of all his life, his sports career, for further life... unfortunately, I also had to choose either studies or sports achievements that I had always dreamed of. Most of the people showing the sense of struggle for maintaining the position were women 24 people (66.67%) and men amounted to 12 people (33.33%). The sense of struggle was found in 24 (16%) of all the women and 12 (12.69%) of all the men. The gender difference was not statistically significant ( ²=0.642; p<0.42, irrelevant). The Mann-Whitney test indicated that there was a statistical relationship between the variable of position maintaining and the subjects mean value of standardised variables M F LOC MACH AV. SEX POL PSYCH. PED. PSYCH. lack of fear of success fear of success Figure 2. Factors influencing the element of the fear of success life difficulties

7 46 sense of control (z=2.0524; p<0.045). The people revealing this content of the fear of success were characterised by more internal LOC (M=5.361) than the people not revealing it (M=6.512) (the lower the LOC result the more internal locus of control) (M=6.313 all the subjects). The chisquare independence tests showed that among all the 43 students of psychology as many as 12 (27.91%) had the sense of struggle for maintaining the position ( ²=4.254; df=1; p<0.04). Whereas, among the 48 students of the School of Physical Education only 1 person (2.08%) declared this content aspect of the fear of success (Yates chisquare=8.769, df=1, p<0,0001). However, the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA rang H(3.208)=4.771 (p<0.1. irrelevant) (study major LOC) did not reveal any significant differences in the locus of control in the students of different majors. Figure 3 illustrates the profiles of standardised mean values for the people revealing the fear of success in the aspect of struggle for maintaining the position and people not revealing this aspect. People s envy as a possible cost of being successful was pointed at by 17 (8.17%) of all the subjects. There were statements as, for example: they envied her and attributed the reputation of a swot to her, her girl friends envied her, laughed at her, it turned out that in her group it was not allowed to stick one s neck out, if one was good one was a swot and a grind... there was a coalition against her, she was backbitten and everyone waited for the moment she would fail. The women (14 people, 9.33% of all the women) slightly more frequently than the men (3 people, 5.17% of all the men) pointed at this aspect of the fear of success. Among the people predicting human envy towards a successful person, women constituted 82.35%, and men only 17.65%. Inter-gender differences were not statistically significant ( ²=1.050; df=1; p<0.3, irrelevant). According to the Mann-Whitney test, the people pointing at envy were characterised by a more external locus of control (M=7.5889) Eugenia Mandal than the remaining people (M=6.199)(z= 1.991; p<0.04). The ² independence tests indicated that among all the 57 students of pedagogy, as many as 11 (19.3%) experienced the fear of human envy, whereas, in the remaining students it referred to 6 people (3.97%) (Yates ²= ; df=1; p<0.0001). According to the additionally conducted Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA H(3.208)=4.77; p irrelevant) (study major x LOC), the students of pedagogy did not significantly differ in LOC (M=6.930) from the remaining students (Kruskal- Wallis ANOVA H(3.208)=4.77; p irrelevant). Figure 4 illustrates the profiles of standardised mean values for the people revealing the fear of success in the aspect of envy and those not revealing this aspect. Few investigated students (4 people 1.92%) indicated the fear of success as a negation of success, ie statements saying that it was impossible for them to be successful at all. There were statements as, for example: after the repeated checking and calculating the average marks, her name was crossed out of the list of successful students, someone had made a mistake she was not the best, it appeared later that there was a mistake and she was second. Among them there were 3 women (2% of all the women) and 1 man (1.72%). Gender differences did not have a statistically significant character. The Mann-Whitney and ² tests did not reveal any significant differences. Discussion The presented research revealed that success calls up both negative and positive associations and the fear of success in the investigated students appeared as frequently as lack of the fear. The remaining students showed positive or very positive associations connected with success. Contrary to the American findings from the 1970s (Horner, 1972, 1978), stating that mainly women showed the fear of success, among the Polish students investigated 30 years later this fear was more frequent in men. The men not only showed mean value of standardised variables M F LOC MACH AV. SEX POL PSYCH. PED. PSYCH. lack of fear of success fear of success Figure 3. Factors influencing the element of the fear of success struggle for maintaining the position

8 the fear of success more often than women, but also this fear had a higher intensity in them. The male sex was, among many other measured variables (like: study major, average marks, sense of control, Machiavellianism, mental masculinity, femininity), a predictor of the fear of success occurrence. It appears that women, more frequently than men, not only are not afraid of success but, on the contrary, they reveal a strong desire for success and positive associations connected with it. It is in accord with the tendencies, which have existed in the world since the 1980s, to the increase of the number of men experiencing the fear of success (Paludi, 1984). Whereas, in Poland there are still a lot of traditional convictions that women are supposedly afraid of success, they do not want to make a career. They do not want to have managerial positions and they reluctantly get involved in professional activity. On the contrary, the evidence of the fear of success obtained here shows that it was contemporary Polish men who are more often afraid of success and they show negative associations connected with it. There arises a question: why did men reveal the fear of success more frequently? Undoubtedly, nowadays there have been far reaching emancipation changes in Poland and women, as well-educated, professionally active and successful at school or university, ceased to be afraid of the changes. However, perhaps men, more than women, are still under social pressure to be successful? And perhaps they are also more suspicious towards different life circumstances connected with being successful and women are more optimistic? These suppositions seem to confirm other obtained results. Because it was actually the machiavellian personality that appeared to be the most connected one with the fear of success. It was a stronger predictor of the fear than gender. Seeking the answer to the question of the basis of the more frequent fear in men, probably slightly higher Machiavellianism of men could be indicated. Because in the research presented, as Fear of success 47 well as in other studies (Mandal, 2002), a negative correlation of femininity with Machiavellianism and a statistical tendency to a positive relationship of masculinity with Machiavellianism was observed. The result showing that Machiavellianism is a predictor of the fear of success seems surprising. Because it is widely known that machiavellian people not only intensely desire success, but they also accept the saying: the end justifies the means without fear or scruples. However, the distinct fear of success occurring in them is probably connected with a specific image of the world, or general distrust, suspicion, a conviction that people are jealous of other people s success and in the situation of success they scheme and distance themselves from them. Thus, the obtained results suggest that machiavellian people (who more often prove to be men and masculine subjects) feel a strong desire for individual success and simultaneously reveal the fear of success or rather of the costs connected with success because they are more distrustful and suspicious. It confirms the hypothesis that machiavellian people as those anxious for success and not infrequently using deceitful methods of its achievement have high awareness and knowledge of its negative consequences. In their actions they seem to remember them and, to some extent, plan them, include them in costs and gains. It appears they also seem to be afraid of them. The research showed that among the university students and the students of the School of Physical Education, the fear of success occurs much more rarely in the students of the School of Physical Education. Doubtless, the specificity of importance and clarity of success in sports contribute to this. It is students of the School of Physical Education that are very often members of the national team frequently awarded medals nowadays. They are in the optimal phase of life to be successful. Not only are they not afraid of success, but they are eager for it and their associations connected with success are very positive. Whereas, success in professions that mean value of standardised variables M F LOC MACH AV. SEX POL PSYCH. PED. PSYCH. lack of fear of success fear of success Figure 4. Factors influencing the element of the fear of success envy

9 48 students of the remaining majors prepare for is usually connected with middle-age. Thus, these students may experience the fear of success as of something unknown that is ahead of them in their professional life. However students of physical education, already experiencing success (or failure) know its consequences better. They are convinced that success has mainly positive outcomes. Thus, the basis for the fear of success in students not yet experiencing success or failure may also be the fear of the unknown. The content analysis of the fear of success indicated people s frequent generating negative associations pointing at future social and family difficulties of an achiever. They were connected with low intensity of masculinity and the machiavellian personality. It seems understandable that concern about possible social and family difficulties was observed in people having low intensity of mental masculinity as those to a smaller degree oriented towards the sphere of professional success. Because the sphere of interpersonal relationships and family values are feminine values. Whereas, machiavellian people as those generally distrustful towards people have negative associations of success with difficulties in interpersonal relationships and family life. It would seem that the sphere of family life (but not social life) is not of great importance for machiavellian people and that they do not tend to be too worried about an unsuccessful marriage. Whereas, the results indicate that it is not so. Machiavellian people reveal fears connected with this scope of negative consequences of success. Probably they notice such consequences of success relatively easily. It also seems that they care about an image of a successful person, i.e. one having not only good social contacts, but also a happy family life. Finally, it cannot be assumed that machiavellian people crave for professional successes exclusively. Doubtless, a happy family life is also important for them. In consequence of the fact that the students of the School of Physical Education were characterised by the highest intensity of masculinity, they tended to point at the social and family aspect of the fear of success the least frequently. In turn, the students of psychology appeared significantly the most feminine but they did not reveal the content of the fear, stereotypically connected with feminine values, in the most numerous way. Thus, the family aspect of the fear of success is connected with high femininity of the subject to a smaller degree. In the group of people pointing at the content aspect of the fear of success comprising concern about the most various life difficulties, men were three times more numerous. Simultaneously, Eugenia Mandal this dimension of the fear was stronger in machiavellian subjects. The men showed more negative associations concerning tragic life circumstances that an achiever may experience. It is probable that because they have such associations or experience, they connect success with an accident or developing an addiction. Such associations may be more frequent in men as men are involved in road accidents or abuse alcohol more often (Brannon, 1999). The investigated men pointed at life difficulties (sometimes of a sensational character, eg being enlisted by the secret service, death of the pulmonary variety of anthrax) because this kind of screenplay occurs in male films or adventure books more often. At the same time, in the analysis of the obtained result it is possible to point at a relationship of mental masculinity with Machiavellianism. Most of the people experiencing the fear of success as a fear of continuous struggle for maintaining the achieved position were people having the inner sense of control as well as students of psychology. The students of the School of Physical Education mentioned it the least frequently. It seems understandable that people having the internal locus of control as those having a strong conviction that they are the authors of their own success, are more concerned about the idea that after achieving a high position they have further hard work ahead of them. Among the investigated students, such a fear occurred in the students of psychology in the most numerous way, whereas the students of the School of Physical Education seemed to be the most carefree in their perception of success in the aspect of struggle for maintaining the position. They strive for success but they are not worried at all about its negative consequences, on the contrary, they mainly see its positive aspects. No differences in the locus of control in the students of different majors were found, so it is the experience of the psychology students that may be connected with the intensive effort to maintain a good position in the situation of success. The people who, facing success, were afraid of envy on the part of the environment were characterised by a more external sense of control. They were the students of pedagogy more frequently. It is the external dimension of the sense of control that is connected with a sense of dependence on external circumstances and other people who, in the perception of the consequences of success, are distinctly perceived as performers of future events. The students of pedagogy as the most numerous among those afraid of this kind of consequences of success and not differing from other students as far as the locus of control is concerned, probably have negative experience connected with interpersonal

10 relationships and envy shown them in the situation of success. The fear of success is a complex phenomenon revealed in people with different intensity and content. Nowadays, contrary to the stereotypes connected with gender, it may occur in men (similarly as in the investigated students) more and more frequently. It is influenced not only by variables connected with sex biological and mental gender, but also by personality variables mainly Machiavellianism and the locus of control, as well as situational variables study major, future profession and success specificity. High average marks, as an individual variable and the effect of hard work, seemingly a quite diagnostic prognosis of future professional success, do not turn out to be a significant predictor of lack of the fear of success. Simultaneously, Machiavellianism and the locus of control seem to have the greatest importance among these variables. Thus, the fear of success revealed by people reflects their anxiety about the quality of life in the situation of success. In its essence, the fear of success means a fear of high costs accompanying success and sometimes of a failure as well. References Balkin, J. (1986). Contributions of family to men s fear of success in college. Psychological Reports, 59, Balkin, J. (1987). Contributions of friends to women s fear of success in college. Psychological Reports, 61, Brannon, L. (1999). Gender: psychological perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Cook, E., Chandler, T.A. (1984). Is fear of success a motive? An attempt to answer criticism. Adolescence, 19, 75, Cherry, F., Deaux, K. (1978). Fear of success versus fear of gender-inapproppriate behavior. Sex Roles, 4, Drwal, R. (1979). Opracowanie Kwestionariusza Delta do pomiaru poczucia kontroli. Studia Psychologiczne, 18, of control. Psychological Studies, 18, 67 84]. Gelbort, K.R., Winer, J.L. (1985). Fear of success and fear of failure: A multitrait-multimethod validation study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 4, Gonzalez, J.T. (1988). Dilemmas of the high-achieving Chicana: The double-bind factor in male/female relationships. Sex Roles, 18, Horner, M.J. (1972). Toward an understanding of achievement Journal of Social Issues, 28, Horner, M.J. (1978). The measurement and behavioral implications of fear of success in women. In: J.W. Atkinson, J.O. Raynor (Eds.), Personality, motivation and achievement (pp ). Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere. Hyland, M.E. (1989). There is no motive to avoid success: The compromise expanation for success-avoiding behavior. Journal of Personality, 57, Komarowsky, M. (1973). Cultural contraditions and sex roles: The masculine case. American Journal of Sociology, 78, ventory. Warsaw: Psychological Test Workshop]. Fear of success 49 gender. Katowice: Unpublished manuscript]. Paludi, M.A. (1984). Psychometric properties and underlying assumptions of four objective measures of fear of success. Sex Roles, 10, Pfost, K.S., Fiore, M. (1990). Pursuit of nontraditional occupations: Fear 0 of success or fear of not being chosen. Sex Roles, 1 2, Pospiszyl, K. (1985). Psychopatia Rothman, M. (1996). Fear of success among business students. Psychological Reports, 78, Sancho, A.M., Hewitt, J. (1990). Questioning fear of success. Psychological Reports, 67, 3, the fantasy-based measure of fear of success, Psychological Bulletin, 82, 6,