Playground Surface Testing Background Research
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1 Playground Surface Testing Background Research Martyn R. Shorten, Ph.D. Portland Oregon, USA
2 Playground Surfacing Background Research Playgrounds High Availability Public Schools Home High Risk
3 Injury Statistics Injury Rates 205,850 Emergency Room admissions during 1999 Frequency 1 per 1.3 minutes Occurrence 1 per 1333 children
4 Injury Statistics Accident Type Falls 70% Collisions 17%
5 Injury Statistics Injury Type Cuts, Bruises, Sprains Strains 46% Head Injuries 10% Limb Fractures 33%
6 Injury Statistics Fatalities 147 deaths between January 1990 and August 2000 Entrapment Head Injury 75% Falls 21% Source: US CPSC: Tinsworth and MacDonald, 2001
7 Injury Statistics Risk Factors Equipment height Equipment design Parental supervision Maintenance Mixed use
8 Injury Statistics Surfacing as a Risk Factor Falls to the surface: 20% of deaths 70-80% of injuries Shock Attenuating Surfaces: Potential for lower injury risk
9 Playground Surfacing and Playground Injuries Playground Safety Initiatives CPSC Handbook (1975) Safety Advocates Legislation Equipment Design Surfacing Standards
10 Playground Surfacing Playground Surfacing Materials Loose-Fill Surfaces Organic Bark Dust Wood Engineered Wood Fiber Inorganic Sand Gravel Shredded foam / rubber
11 Playground Surfacing Playground Surfacing Materials Unitary Surfaces Rubber / Urethane Poured-in-Place Tiles
12 Playground Surfacing Performance Criteria Standards ASTM F1292 EN 1177, etc.
13 Playground Surfacing Performance Criteria Standards ASTM F1292 EN 1177, etc. Fall Height
14 Playground Surfacing Performance Criteria Standards ASTM F1292 EN 1177, etc. Fall Height Test Method Instrumented headform Triaxial Accelerometer
15 Playground Surfacing Performance Criteria Standards ASTM F1292 EN 1177, etc. Fall Height Test Method Instrumented headform Triaxial Accelerometer Critical Fall Height
16 Playground Surfacing Performance Criteria Historical efforts to base performance criteria on (head) injury risk data g-max Head Injury Criterion
17 Brain Injury Mechanisms
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21 Brain Injury Mechanisms Diffuse Axonal Injury Metabolic Cascade: Ca and K ion release Disruption of neural function Normal Axons Compensation Increase energy expenditure Metabolic distress Increased vulnerability Traumatized Axons
22 Brain Injury Mechanisms Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Normal Axons Long Term Consequences: Second Concussion Syndrome Cumulative Effects Traumatized Axons
23 Brain Injury Mechanisms Abbreviated Injury Scale Injury AIS Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival Uncertain Headache, Dizziness Loss of Consciousness Skull Fracture Neurological Damage Hemorrhage Brainstem Damage Tissue Disruption
24 Brain Injury Mechanisms Abbreviated Injury Scale Injury AIS Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival Uncertain Headache, Dizziness Loss of Consciousness Skull Fracture Neurological Damage Hemorrhage Brainstem Damage Tissue Disruption
25 Brain Injury Mechanisms Abbreviated Injury Scale Injury AIS Degree Minor Moderate Serious Severe Critical Survival Uncertain Headache, Dizziness Loss of Consciousness Skull Fracture Neurological Damage Hemorrhage Brainstem Damage Tissue Disruption
26 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Cadaver studies Animal studies Human volunteers Automotive Industry Aerospace Industry Military
27 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Acceleration g max Acceleration, g Time, ms
28 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Wayne State Curve
29 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Gadd Severity Index 100 (Acceleration) 2.5 / Time, ms
30 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Gadd Severity Index 100 (Acceleration) 2.5 / Time, ms
31 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Head Injury Criterion
32 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves AIS 1
33 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves AIS 1
34 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves AIS 1
35 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves Probability of Injury No Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS 1 0% HIC Score
36 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury AIS 1
37 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves Probability of Injury No Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS 1 0% HIC Score
38 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves Probability of Injury No Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS 1 2 0% HIC Score
39 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
40 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
41 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
42 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury AIS
43 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
44 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
45 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
46 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves HIC = 1000
47 Impact Tolerance of the Brain Prasad-Mertz Curves No Injury Probability of Injury 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% AIS % HIC Score
48 Surface Shock Attenuation Tests Are Impact Tests Good Surrogates? Mass Energetics Geometry Flexibility
49 Playground Surfacing Critical Fall Height HIC 1500 g-max Fall Height, feet 0
50 Playground Surfacing Critical Fall Height HIC 1500 g-max Fall Height, feet 0
51 Playground Surfacing Critical Fall Height HIC 1500 Critical Fall Height: 7 feet g-max Fall Height, feet 0
52 Playground Surfacing Materials Shock Attenuation Performance Loose-Fill Unitary Critical Fall Height, mete Gravel Sand Wood Chips Wood Fibre Shredded Rubber 25 cm uncompressed depth 15 cm thickness
53 Playground Surfacing Benefits of Shock Attenuation Relative Injury Risk 2.3 Non-conforming surfaces 2.3 times greater injury risk 1 Conforming Non Conforming Chalmers et al, 1996
54 Playground Surfacing Benefits of Shock Attenuation Relative Injury Risk Concrete 5 Non-conforming surfaces 2.3 times greater injury risk Surfacing Materials Rubber 1 Bark Dust 2 Mott et al, 1997
55 Playground Surfacing Benefits of Shock Attenuation Relative Injury Risk Asphalt 6 Non-conforming surfaces 2.3 times greater injury risk Surfacing Materials Sand 1 Grass 1.7 Severe head injuries Sosin et al, 1993; Laforest et al, 2000
56 Playground Testing Impact Test Issues Positives: Good faith attempt to evaluate injury risk Documented effectiveness Bias of risk estimates
57 Are Impact Tests A Good Surrogate True HIC Estimation
58 Adjusted HIC scores In-filled Conventional 100% Probability of Injury 80% 60% 40% 20% % HIC Score
59 Playground Testing Impact Test Issues Limitations: Data Method Quantity Applicability Validity Biofidelity Reproducibility and repeatability Head injury focus Concussion
60 Concussus to shake violently
61
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