Psychology: Bridging the gap between GCSE & A Level

Transcription

1 Psychology: Bridging the gap between GCSE & A Level The bridging work MUST be completed before you start the Psychology course in September. Specification: Edexcel You are externally assessed through three end of Year 2 exams. There will be end of Year 1 summer exams to assess your suitability for the second year. There is no coursework in Psychology. The Foundations in Psychology paper covers - Social Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Biological Psychology & Learning Approaches used in Psychology. This will be covered in year 1. You will need to ensure that you are equipped with the following: Textbook: You will need to purchase a copy of Edexcel Psychology for A level year 1 and AS published by Illuminate Publishing (ISBN: ). This must be brought to every lesson and covers the course material for Year 1 of the course. The second book will need to be purchased for the second year of the course (ISBN: ). Scientific Calculator: As you will see from this document, Psychology A Level has a high mathematical content and you will be required to calculate inferential statistics both in class and the examinations. The aim of the summer work is to: Allow you to gain an appreciation of what Psychology is and familiarise yourself with the specification and demands of the Psychology course. You are to do the following tasks: Read pages 2-4 to gain an understanding of the specification. Read the information on pages 4-8 about the use of experiments on Psychology and complete the questions in the boxes. Read pages 8-13 about the use of questionnaires in Psychology, using Hazen and Shaver s Love Quiz as an example. Answer all the questions set. Don t worry if you get stuck with any of the questions, we will go through the answers in September. Psychology Assessment Objectives 1

2 In the examinations you will be assessed on specific skills which are taught through 3 Assessment Objectives: AO1 You will need to be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures. AO2 You will need to be able to apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and procedures: in a theoretical context in a practical context when handling qualitative data when handling quantitative data AO3 You will need to be able to analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in relation to issues, to: make judgements and reach conclusions develop and refine practical design and procedures As well as the examined assessment objectives, Psychology will also enable you to gain valuable transferable skills which are highly valued by universities and employers: Cognitive skills: None-routine problem-solving, systems thinking, critical thinking and ICT literacy. Interpersonal skills: Communication, relationship-building skills and collaborative problemsolving. Intrapersonal skills: Adaptability, self-management and self-development. 2

3 Specification Structure: Year 1 Social approach Theories/explanations of behaviour Prejudice: Realistic Conflict Theory, Social Identity Theory and factors which affect prejudice (e.g. personality) Obedience: Agency Theory, Social Impact Theory and factors affecting obedience (e.g. culture) Methods Surveys: Questionnaires and Interviews Sampling techniques Ethics of using human participants in psychological research Studies Sherif et al (1954) The Robber s cave Experiment Milgram s study of Obedience and 3 variations Cohrs et al (2012) Individual differences in ideological attitudes and prejudice Key Question One key issue of relevance of today s society e.g. How can Psychology be used to explain heroism? Practical Investigation One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to Social Psychology e.g. A questionnaire to see if males or females perceive themselves to be more obedient. Cognitive approach Theories/explanations of behaviour The Working Memory Model The Multi-Sore Model of Memory Reconstructive Memory Explanation of long-term memory episodic and semantic memory Methods Field and laboratory experiments Decision making and interpretation of inferential statistics Case studies of brain damaged patients Studies Baddeley (1966) Working Memory Model Steyvers and Hemmer (2012) Reconstruction from memory in naturalistic environments Key Question One key question of relevance to today s society e.g. How can knowledge of working memory be used to inform the treatment of dyslexia Practical Investigation One practical research exercise to gather data relevant to Cognitive Psychology e.g. An experiment to look at acoustic similarity of words and the effect on short-term memory Biological approach Theories/explanations of behaviour The central nervous system The effect of recreational drugs on the transmission process in the central nervous system The structure of the brain, different brain areas (e.g. frontal cortex) and brain functioning as an explanation of aggression The role of evolution and natural explanation to explain behaviour, including aggression The role of hormones to explain human behaviour such as aggression Biological explanation of aggression as an alternative to Freud s psychodynamic theory Methods Correlational method, including analysis of correlational data Brain-scanning techniques Twin and adoption studies Studies Raine et al (1997) Brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography Brendgen et al (2005) Examining genetic and environmental effects of social aggression: A study of 6 year old twins Key Question One key question of relevance to today s society e.g. What are the implications for society if aggression is found to be caused by nature not nurture? Practical Investigation A practical research exercise to gather data relevant to the biological approach e.g. A correlation into age and attitudes to drug use. 3

4 Learning approach Theories/explanations of behaviour Classical conditioning, including the work of Pavlov Operant Conditioning, including the work of Skinner and behaviour modification Social Learning Theory, including the work of Bandura The acquisition and treatment of phobias Methods Human research: The use of observations Animal research: The practical and ethical issues of using animals in psychological research Data analysis and the scientific status of Psychology Studies Watson and Rayner (1920) Little Albert Capafons et al (1998) Systematic desensitisation in the treatment of the fear of flying Key Question One question of relevance to today s society e.g. Would it be possible for airline companies to offer treatment programmes for fear of flying? Practical Investigation A practical research exercise which must be observational and gather data relevant to the Learning approach e.g. Investigating the difference in helpful or polite behaviour in men and women. Research Methods 2: Experiments Researchers have to consider the experimental method. There are three types of experiment The first type is a laboratory experiment. These usually take place in a lab, or at least a controlled setting this will be unnatural for the participants. These are the most scientific experiments, because only one variable is manipulated (the independent variable, IV) and all extraneous variables are normally controlled. A common design within this type of experiment is to have an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group does something the control group does not, so the control group provides a baseline measure (i.e. what the dependent variable, DV, would be like without manipulation). The findings for the experimental group are then able to be compared against the baseline measure. This is important, because otherwise the normal situation would be unknown. A second type is the field experiment. These have as many controls as possible, but not all of them can be controlled to their optimum because they take place in the field (in the real world). Field experiments take place in natural settings, such as that of Hofling et al. (1966) (see 1.7 Hofling et al. (1966) for more), which took place in a hospital a natural setting for the nurses who were being studied. Apart from being in a separate setting, the features of field experiments tend to generally mirror those of lab experiments. The third type is a natural experiment. These also take place in the field rather than in a laboratory, and they involve a naturally-occurring IV. These are uncommon, because it is out of the experimenter s control if the IV is manipulated naturally. An example of a natural experiment comes from those which have looked into the effect of children s behaviour from TV. Their behaviour was studied, such as levels of aggression, in an area where TV was yet to be introduced, and then they continued to study after television had appeared in that area. The researchers themselves had not arranged for TV to not be in the area and then for them to have it that would be neither ethical nor practical. They found a community where television was about to be introduced and decided to study it: a natural experiment. A natural experiment is a quasi- experiment, because the IV is not manipulated by the researcher. A quasi experiment uses situations which are discovered, not manipulated, and so take place in the participants natural setting. Questions Which of the following examples is a field experiment, a laboratory experiment or a natural experiment? 1. An experiment was conducted to see whether more words could be recalled if the words required a deeper level of thought compared with words that required only minimal thought. Type of experiment: 2. An experiment was conducted to see if media influenced the behaviour of children on a remote island that had previously not been connected to mainland television. Type of experiment: 3. An experiment in obedience was conducted on passers-by to see if they would be more likely to give a stranger 4 money for a parking meter who was dressed in uniform or in plain clothes. Type of experiment:

5 What is Validity? Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. For example does an IQ test really measure your intelligence or does a personality test really measure your personality? When we measure behaviour in a laboratory are we measuring the same behaviour as in real life. When we measure behaviour on a questionnaire are people telling us the truth or are we just measuring what they think we want them to tell us? Ecological Validity: When a test measures behaviour which is true to real life. Most experiments are carried out in settings that are not true to real life. This causes the participants to be more co-operative and adopt different behaviours to suit the experimental conditions. This is why researchers like interviews, questionnaires and observations as they are more likely to represent real life. What Is Reliability? Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A measure is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly. A research method is considered reliable if we can repeat it and get the same results. There are several different ways to estimate or improve reliability depending on your research method. Laboratory experiments Field experiments Natural experiments Strengths Strong controls are present, which makes the experiments replicable, so reliability can be tested (and results are more likely to be reliable) Because of the strong controls on extraneous variables, clear causeand-effect conclusions can be drawn from the findings More ecologically valid than lab experiments because they take place in natural settings to the participants Fairly replicable, and so still likely to be valid, because generally there are some controls present, as with laboratory experiments The independent variable occurs naturally, so the findings are valid because it is not artificially set up High ecological validity, experiment takes place in a natural environment, with a naturallyoccurring IV Weaknesses Because of the strong controls, the tasks may become unnatural, giving invalid results There is no ecological validity, because the environment is not natural for the participants and there are controls Experimenter effects could affect the results, and cause bias Because of the natural setting, it is hard to control all factors, so findings may be less valid than lab experiments, also may not be replicable Experimenter effects could affect the results, and cause bias It is difficult to control variables because the IV is naturally occurring, so other variables may contribute to findings Hard to control the experimenter effects, using a double-blind technique is not straight forward, because most are carried out in a natural setting Questions Which of the experiments has ecological validity? Explain your answer. Which has the least control over extraneous variables? Explain your answer. 5

6 Experimental design There are three main types of participant design. These will depend upon the conditions the experiment has. The researcher can ask all participants to take part in every condition of the study. This participant design is called repeated measures. All participants do all groups. One strength of repeated measures is that all the participants do every condition, and so participant variables (features of the participants which might affect data) are controlled. This is because if every participant does each condition, any participant variables present will be present for all conditions, so it cancels itself out. Another strength is that more data can be gathered because everyone does all conditions. Also, if you use independent groups and there are two conditions, you will require twice as many participants, which is more costly, less convenient and possibly less ethical. A weakness of repeated measures is that order effects may arise. It is possible that if one participant is doing all four conditions of an experiment, they may get more tired each time the next condition happens, and therefore put less effort in: this is called fatigue effect. Also, it is possible that participants may get better at the conditions as they go along because they know what to do and how they could do it better, having already done the first condition: this is called practice effect. Order effects do affect data, and incorrect conclusions can be drawn from the findings unless they are noticed. A further weakness is the possibility of demand characteristics. These occur when participants respond by trying to guess what the study is about, and may want to help the researcher out by giving the response they think the study wants; or by purposely going against what is predicted. Either way, this will affect results. An alternative design is to split the participants up so that they each only do one condition. This is called independent groups design. There are different participants in each group, and they each do different conditions. Under this design, all conditions are still fulfilled by the participants, although not every participant does each one. A benefit of using independent groups is that there are no order effects. This is because different people do different conditions, no one participant does two conditions. Similarly, there is less possibility of demand characteristics being present. This is because when the participants are no taking part in every condition, they are less likely to guess the nature of the study. A drawback of the design is participant variables can easily affect the findings, as different participants are in each condition. Also, more participants will be required for the study, because they are needed for each different condition. This is negative because it is more costly, it can be more unethical, it makes samples slower to obtain, and means that the study can take longer to complete. A matched pairs design is very similar to the independent groups design. Here, again, participants only do one condition each. However, before they are split into groups, the researchers pair up the participants with factors which they think are important, such as age, gender, social class or ethnicity. This enables as similar as possible participants in each group without using the repeated measures design, so still a good comparison can be made using results. A strength of the matched pairs design is that (like repeated measures) participant variables should not affect the findings, if the most important participant variables have been matched well. Also, there will not be order effects, because everyone is doing different conditions, and no participant does two. However, a weakness of matched pairs is that different people are used, and even though the experimenters attempt to match them into pairs in some ways, there are still always going to be some participant variables, which can affect the data. This is an unavoidable feature of the design. For example, it may be difficult to match education or background. Also, another weakness is that more people are needed for this design, so the same problems as before arise: more costs, less ethically-valid, etc. 6

7 VARIABLES A variable is anything which is likely to affect the experiment. The independent variable (IV) is the variable which is changed or manipulated by the experimenter. This is to see what effect it has on the dependent variable (DV). This is what is being measured by the researcher. The DV changes as the experimenter manipulates the IV. Both of these variables must be measurable, this means operationalising them. An extraneous variable is any other variable which affects the results. Experiments have strong controls to decrease the number of extraneous variables, which affect the results as well as, or instead of, the IV. There are two main extraneous variables: participant variables for example age, gender, experience and mood of the participants situational variables for example temperature, background noise, interruptions and lighting conditions Extraneous variables should be controlled, but any which are not controlled and affect the results are called confounding variables. 7

8 Questions: Identify the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) in these examples: 1. An investigation was set up to examine the effect of noise on essay writing. IV: DV: 2. A number of first-and second-born children were given an IQ test to see if intelligence was affected by birth order. IV: DV: 3. On group of children were allowed to play violent computer games and another group only games which were non-violent. Levels of aggression were studied following play. IV: DV: Research Methods 2: Focus on Questionnaires The LOVE QUIZ As part of your course you will need to be able to describe and evaluate questionnaires. You will also consider different aspects of human development. This section will introduce you to questionnaires using an example of a study in to relationship style and you will then be asked to make your own questionnaire on a different topic (subject choice) to use with your peers in the first few lessons of the course. You will need to use your own knowledge and other sources of information (books, internet). 1. What is a questionnaire? 2. What is the difference between an open question and a closed question? 3. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative data? 4. Collect some examples of questionnaires in the media (newspapers, magazines, internet) which show different types of questions which gather quantitative and qualitative data. Bring these to lessons with you. 8

9 5. Having looked at lots of questionnaires, what attributes do you think a good questionnaire will have (or not have!)? 6. Read the study below that used a questionnaire to look at whether the type of relationship we have with our parents (mother) is important in forming relationships in adulthood. Aim Procedures The LOVE QUIZ Cindy Hazan & Phil Shaver 1987 Hazan & Shaver were interested in John Bowlby s idea that an infant s first attachment formed a template for all future relationships. They wanted to see if there was a correlation between the infant s attachment type (relationship style with parent) and their future approach to romantic relationships. Hazan & Shaver devised the Love Quiz which consisted of 2 components one of which was a love experience questionnaire (100 questions) which assessed individual s beliefs about romantic love - eg: whether it lasted forever, whether it could be found easily, how much trust there was in a romantic relationship, etc The Love Quiz was printed in local newspaper the Rocky Mountain News and readers were asked to send in their responses. Hazan & Shaver analysed the first 620 replies sent in from people aged from 14 to 82.They classified the respondent s infant attachment style as secure, anxious-resistant or anxiousavoidant and looked for corresponding adult love styles. Secure types described their love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting - emphasising being able to accept their partner regardless of any faults - with such relationships tending to be more enduring, with the initial passion reappearing from time to time and for some romantic love never fading. They were happy depending on others and comfortable if others are dependent on them. They were happy to be close to others. Anxious-resistant types experienced love as involving obsession, a desire for reciprocation, emotional highs and lows, extreme sexual attraction and jealousy, and worry that their partners didn t really love them or might abandon them. Their desire for intense closeness could frighten others away. Anxious-avoidant types typically feared intimacy, emotional highs and lows, and jealousy and believed they did not need love to be happy. They were uncomfortable being close to and/or depending on others. Results Hazan & Shaver found a strikingly high correlation between the infant attachment types and the adult romantic love styles. In terms of attachment style 56 per cent classified themselves as secure, 25 per cent as avoidant and 19 per cent as resistant Hazan & Shaver concluded that there was evidence to support the concept of an infant s first attachment formed a template for all future relationships. However, they did concede that not everyone stayed true to their infant attachment style and that some people did change as they grew older. 9

10 Evaluation People were recording their memories of infant experience and such memories may not always be accurate. The responders were self-selecting and, therefore, the results may be subject to volunteer bias. Plus, the respondents were self-reporting - and people do not always give truthful answers. However, a number of studies have supported the Love Quiz findings - eg: Judith Feeney & Patricia Noller (1990) found that securely-attached individuals had the most long-term enduring romantic relationships while anxious-avoidant types had the most short-lived and least-intense relationships. In a 4-month study of heterosexual relationships among Canadian undergraduates Hazan & Shaver repeated the Love Quiz in 1993 and again found strong evidence for a correlation between infant attachment type and adult love style - though the correlation was not quite as strong this time. (In total the two Love Quiz studies involved 1200 participants.) It is important to bear in mind that Hazan & Shaver only established a correlation. Therefore, cause-and-effect cannot be assumed from their work. Securely attached adults had certain beliefs (love is enduring) reported certain experiences (e.g. mutual trust) were less likely to have been divorced Insecurely attached adults felt true love was rare; fell in and out of love easily found relationships less easy were more likely to be divorced Secure adults Resistant (anxious) adults Avoidant adults Different love experiences Relationships are positive Preoccupied by love Fearful of closeness. Adults views of relationships Trust others and believe in enduring love Fall in love easily but have trouble finding true love Love is not durable nor necessary for happiness Memories of the mother child relationship Positive image of mother as dependable and caring Conflicting memories of mother being positive and rejecting Remember mothers as cold and rejecting 7. In the Evaluations box above, put a tick against the evaluations that you think are strengths of this study and put a cross against the evaluations that you think are weaknesses of this study. 8. Look at the shortened version of their questionnaire and answer the following questions: did they use open or closed questions? Did they gather quantitative or qualitative data? 10

11 You can have a go at the questionnaire yourself if you like; but remember that attachment style in infancy does not always relate to attachment style in adulthood and that this short questionnaire is not as reliable as the 100 questions used in the original study. We will NOT ask to know your attachment style or your results in school. You DO NOT need to complete this questionnaire. 9. They analysed the data by working out relationship / attachment styles in infancy and adult romantic relationships. They then correlated these results to see if there was a relationship between the two. What is a correlation? What type of graph is a correlation usually represented in? 10. Using what you know of questionnaires (e.g. what makes them good / bad), design your own consisting of 5-10 items (questions) not more than 1 side of A4. The aim of your questionnaire is to find out about reasons subject choice at A level. Your questionnaire should include closed and open questions so that you can gain both qualitative and quantitative data. Try to adapt some of the styles of closed questions that you have gathered for the media. Your questionnaire should not ask for any sensitive material nor the name of the person completing it. You may want to find out what a levels they have chosen, specific reasons behind, plans beyond A level and so on. Your questionnaire should be on a separate sheet so that it may be given to another person. The Questionnaire Ethics briefing This study involves questions that may be related to sensitive information about your early life experiences and which may suggest problematic adult relationships. You do not have to complete this questionnaire and you will not be asked for your data. Please note that the suggested correlation between early experience and later relationships is not 100 per cent there are many individuals who overcome early, unfavourable circumstances. In addition this correlation is not proven and this questionnaire of 9 questions is much less reliable than the original withy 100 questions! Question 1: Which of the following best describes your parents relationships with each other? a) My parents had a caring relationship and are affectionate with each other b) My parents appear to have a good enough relationship with each other but are not especially affectionate. c) My parents have a reasonable relationship and are sometimes affectionate towards each other. Question 2: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your mother? a) My mother treats me with respect and is accepting and not demanding. She is confident about herself b) My mother is humourous, likable and respected by others. She treats me with respect. c) My mother treats me with respect but is sometimes cold and rejecting. Question 3: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your father? 11

12 a) My father is sometimes affectionate but can be unfair. b) My father is caring, affectionate and humourous. c) My father is reasonably caring. Question 4: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. a) I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. b) I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. c) I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely, difficult to allow myself to depend on them. Question 5: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. a) I don t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me. b) I often worry that my partner doesn t really love me or won t want to stay with me. c) I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often romantic partners want me to be more intimate than I feel comfortable being. Question 6: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy. a) I enjoy relationships but am generally quite self-sufficient. b) I have been lucky in love and most of my relationships are rewarding. I still like the people I was involved with. c) At times I wish I could just melt into someone so we could get beyond our separateness. Question 7: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. a) The kind of head-over-heels love that is depicted in novels and in the movies does not exist in real life b) It s easy to fall in love and I often find myself beginning to fall in love, though I am not sure that it really is love. c) Love is a positive and real experience. Question 8: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. a) It is rare to find a person one can really fall in love with. b) In some relationships romantic love never fades. c) Most of us could love many people equally well, there is no one true love. Question 9: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love. a) I think that romantic feelings do wax and wane. b) Romantic feelings wax and wane but at times they reach the intensity experienced at the start of a relationship. c) Intense romantic love is common at the start of a relationship but rarely lasts. 12

13 In the short version of the Hazan & Shaver s Love Quiz the questions make assessments as follows: Q 1, 2 and 3 assess attachment history Q 4, 5 and 6 assess adult attachment type Q 7, 8 and 9 assess mental models of relationships QUESTION A B C 1 secure insecure avoidant insecure resistant 2 secure insecure resistant insecure avoidant 3 insecure resistant secure insecure avoidant Score for part A (dominant category chosen (secure, insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant) = 4 insecure resistant insecure avoidant secure 5 secure insecure resistant insecure avoidant 6 insecure avoidant secure insecure resistant Score for part B (the dominant category chosen (secure, insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant) = 7 insecure avoidant insecure resistant secure 8 insecure avoidant secure insecure resistant 9 insecure resistant secure insecure avoidant Score for part C (the dominant category chosen (secure, insecure-avoidant or insecure-resistant) = 13