Milgram Experiment. Harlow s Attachment Studies
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1 Milgram Experiment Hypothesis: that humans obey other people who are in a position of authority. Obedience Design: a shock generator that the teacher would use to shock the learner in the study if the learner stated the wrong answer. *Participants were not told the nature of the study. (ethics?) Result: He found that 65% of participants administered the strongest shock. Harlow s Attachment Studies Design: Harlow created two mother surrogates, one of wire and mesh (uncomfortable) and another of sponge rubber and cloth, to determine the value of contact comfort and nursing. Result: He found that contact comfort is a variable of overwhelming importance in the development of affectional responses, whereas lactation is a variable of negligible importance.
2 Pavlov s Dogs Design: Pavlov rang a bell signifying to dogs he worked with that were to be fed. Pavlov found that over time the dogs learned to associate the bell with food causing them to increase salivation due to classical conditioning. Result: Associations can occur between neutral stimuli and an unconditioned response. Neutral stimuli will produce the same response as an unconditioned stimulus. Skinner s Operant Chambers (Skinner Box) Design: studied behaviorism and operant conditioning by measuring how pigeons and rats would respond to a variety of situations in which they were contained in a box and a lever would administer either food or an electric current. Result: behavior is reinforced by positive and negative reinforcement.
3 Stanford Prison Experiment Design: Zimbardo simulated a prison environment to observe people randomly assigned as prisoner or a guard. Result: They found that the participants showed significant behavioral changes by assuming their role conforming to expectations of their role in a short amount of time. This produced psychological distress to the participants and the experiment was ended earlier than anticipated. Piaget s Stages of Cognitive Development Design: Piaget examined object permanence development by using unstructured evaluation methods on infants. Result: These observations strengthened the creation of the four stages of cognitive development. 1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operational 4. Formal Operational
4 Asch s Conformity Study Question: How will a person react when they are put against an opposing opinion of a larger society, and whether they will forfeit their own perspective and conform to the crowds opposing opinion? Design: Comparing the length of various lines in a group setting. Result: The study found that 75% of people were willing to give up their own opinions to fit in with the crowd at least once. Bandura s Social Learning (Aggression) Experiments Question: To determine if viewing aggressive behavior from a male or female model would provoke aggressive behavior from the child. Design: Bobo Doll Results: They found that viewing an aggressive model invoked aggressive behavior from the child, and males viewing an aggressive male model expressed the most aggressive behavior in response.
5 Loftus False Memories Hypothesis: if eyewitnesses are asked questions that contain a false presupposition about the witnessed event, the new false information may be incorporated into the witness s memory of the event. Result: Through four experiments, Loftus found that new information can be integrated to the original memory by falsely adding information that alters the recalled memory. *Eyewitness testimony unreliable Gazzaniga s Split Brain Research Design: studied the ability for the brain to function independently, and if two halves of the brain have separate and unique abilities by conducting experiments with split-brain individuals. Results: found that the two halves of the brain do have the ability to function independently with unique abilities.
6 Seligman s Learned Helplessness Study Design: Seligman & Maier placed dogs into an escape group, a no-harness control group, or a no-escape group. The no-escape group had no control over an administered shock and the escape group could stop the shock. Results: The dogs in the escape group learned to stop the shock, but the dogs in the no-escape group gave up, demonstrating learned helplessness Watson & Rayner Little Albert Experiment Design: Watson conditioned a fear response into infant Albert B. (ethics?) by pairing a rat with a frightening noise and then presenting the rat and other animals without the noise. Results: He found that emotional behaviors can be conditioned through simple stimulus response techniques, although with a certain loss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer period than one month. *Also- generalization to similar stimuli
7 Wolpe s Study on Systematic Desensitization Hypothesis: in order to treat a phobia, one must experience a response that is inhibitory to fear while in the presence of the feared situation. Design: Relaxation training, construction of an anxiety hierarchy, and desensitization were used. Result: 91 % success rate where the participant overcame their fear and did not relapse. Darley s Bystander Effect Design: College students were brought into a room to converse with other students. While conversing, one student would have a scripted nervous seizure to see whether the bystanders would help them. Result: They found that the more bystanders present, the less likely it is for someone to intervene in an emergency situation due to thinking that someone else will intervene.
8 Rosenthal & Jacobson Pygmalion Effect (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) Design: students were given a nonverbal intelligence test and then randomly assigned to an above average, average or below average group. The students were then given an IQ test. Results: They found that students placed in the above average classroom showed significantly greater gains in IQ. Masters & Johnson s Sexual Response Cycle Design: observed participants engaging in sexual acts in a lab setting in order to learn more about human sexuality. Results: They learned about the male and female sexual response in great detail and they found that sexual response is similar in men and women, with the experience of orgasm being the largest difference.
9 Gardner s Multiple Intelligences Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences that is based on research from the structure of the brain itself. Eight indicators that define an intelligence that are linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existentialist. Learning Styles ; Very controversial Gibson & Walk Visual Cliff Study Design: set up the visual cliff, consisting of a board laid across a large sheet of heavy glass which is supported a foot or more above the floor, to observe if infants would show fear to the visual cliff. Results: the researchers found that most human infants can discriminate depth as soon as they can crawl.
10 Sherif s Robbers Cave Study Design: Boys in a summer camp were randomly assigned to be in one of two groups. When the two groups were in competitive situations, aggressive behaviors were exhibited. The participants were asked to characterize the groups. Results: They characterized their own group in positive terms and the other group in negative terms demonstrating that conflict between groups can influence prejudice and discrimination. Unified groups with work toward a common goal. Rosenhan Experiment Design: tested mental health professionals ability to categorize new patients correctly by having normal individuals enter psychiatric facilities to see if they would be deemed psychologically healthy. Result: Eight participants presented themselves for admission and no participant was detected as psychologically healthy. Even trained professionals have a difficult time distinguishing normal individuals from abnormal individuals in a hospital setting.
11 Rorschach Inkblot Tests Design: a set of symmetrical ink blots that are readily interpreted as objects to ask participants to say freely what they interpret in them. Results: different responses are given among groups with different mental illnesses. Roscach claimed this test could examine schizophrenic tendencies, neuroses, depressive tendencies, introversion, extroversion, and intelligence. Festinger s Cognitive Dissonance Experiment Design: Participants were subjected to a boring task and placed in a control group, or paid 1 or 20 dollars to tell the person waiting to do the experiment that the task was fun. Results: People who were paid $1 for lying were more likely to report liking the tasks because they change their opinion to justify being paid $1 to lie.
12 Ekman Universal Facial Expressions Design: experiment to find out whether any facial expressions of emotion are universal and did so by showing photographs of faces to people from different cultures. Results: It was found that particular facial behaviors are universally associated with particular emotions.
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