Intelligence, Aptitude, and Cognitive Abilities 01/08/2014

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1 Intelligence, Aptitude, and Cognitive Abilities 01/08/ Intelligence= the ability to think, understand, and reason, and cognitively adapt to and overcome obstacles Achievement Tests= measure knowledge and thinking skills that an individual has acquired Aptitude Tests= are designed to measure an individuals potential to perform well on a specific range of tests Constructing questionnaires and tests fall under a branch of psychology known as psychometrics, the measurement of psychological traits and abilities including personality, attitude, and intelligence Validity= the degree to which a test actually measures the trait or ability it is intended to measure Predictive Validity= the degree to which a test predicts future performance Reliability= the measurement of the degree to which a test produces consistent results a method of evaluating reliability= test retest reliability In the same way that you depend on on a reliable car to always start, a psychologist should be able to rely on a test to produce consistent scores Those who take the SAT for the second time usually increase their score a small amount, this increase isn t due to changes in intelligence, therefore the SAT is not a perfectly reliable test Standardized Test= a test that has a set of question or problems that are administered and scored in a uniform way across large numbers of individuals standardization allows for comparisons Norms= statistics that allow individuals to be evaluated relative to a typical or standard score

2 Another statistic called the standard deviation measures variability around a mean in intelligence tests, this can be interpreted as the typical number of points between an individuals score and the mean score the standard deviation is though of as the average distance away from the average Percentile Rank= the percentage of scores below a certain point Ex a score of 100 has a percentile rank of.50 meaning that 50% of the population scores below this level A norm is established by giving the test to hundreds of people and then calculating the mean and the standard deviation French government created the Commission on the Education of Retarded Children. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed a method of assessing children s academic achievement at school Binet and Simon s work resulted in an achievement test a measure of how well a child performed at various cognitive tasks relative to other children of his age the test measured mental age= the average or typical test score for a specific chronological age, a 7 year old child with a mental age of 7 would be considered average because her mental age matches her chronological age Terman and other described the Stanford Binet test= a test intended to measure innate (genetic) intelligence William Stern developed the intelligence quotient (IQ) a measurement in which the mental age of an individual is divided by the persons chronological age and then multiplied by 100 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scare (WAIs)= the most commonly used intelligence test used on adolescents the WAIS provides a single IQ score for each test taker the full scale IQ but breaks intelligence into a General Ability Index (GAI) and a Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI) The GAI is computed from scores on the Verbal Comprehensions and Perceptual Reasoning indices. These measures tap into an individual s intellectual abilities without placing so much emphasis on how fast he can sole problems and make decisions

3 The CPI is based on Working Memory and Processing Speed subtests John Raved developed Raven s Progressive Matrices: An intelligence test that emphasizes problems that are intended not to be bound to a particular language or culture Deductive Reasoning= identifying and extracting important information Reproductive Reasoning= applying it to new situations Charles Darwin had a cousin= Galton Galton explained their eminence by good breeding he believed they were genetically gifted. Of course, the children were raised with a great deal of privilege, good nutrition, fine schools, and plenty of parental attention but Galton discounted an influence these factors might have on intelligence and achievement Anthropometrics= the measurement of people the method of measuring physical and mental variation in humans Working memory capacity is an expression of intelligence because it allows complex reasoning strategies to be used in short term storage. Alternatively working memory processes help us ignore irrelevant and distracting information, which allows for intelligent behavior to emerge working memory tasks seem to tap into abilities that allow us to solve problems and express out mental abilities We can search within the brain to identify which characteristics may account for intelligence Sandra Witelson collected 100 brains Detailed anatomical examinations and size measurements were made on the entire brain and sub regions that support cognitive skulls. Approximately 36% of the variation in verbal intelligence scores was accounted for by the size of the cortex One of the most obvious features of the human brain is its convulated surface. These convolutions comprise the outer part of the cerebral cortex. The number and size of these cerebral gyri is greater in species that have complex cognitive and social lives, such as elephants, dolphins, and primates Increased convolutions are associate with higher intelligence test scores

4 Brain size and IQ are influenced by factors like nutrition and physical health Anorexia nervosa or prolonged periods of alcohol abuse appear to lose brain mass along with a certain cognitive skulls such as the ability to put together block designs in a standardized test Brain volume gradually declines as a result of aging; this effect is also correlated with declines in some but not all measures of intelligence 9.2: Factor Analysis= a statistical technique that reveals similarities among a wide variety of items ex different measures such as vocabulary, reading, comprehension, and verbal reasoning General Intelligence= a concept that intelligence is a basic cognitive trait comprising the ability to learn, reason and solve problems regardless of their nature If human intelligence really is a general ability, then that would certainly explain Spearman s correlational findings: A person with a high g score could use his general intelligence to solve problems in any domain he choose Fluid Intelligence(Gf)= a type of intelligence that is used to adapt to new situations and solve new problems without relying on previous knowledge Crystallized Intelligence(Gc)= is a form of intelligence that relies on extensive experience and knowledge and therefore tends to be relatively stable and robust performance in tasks that require Gf intelligence peaks in early to middle adulthood and declines later in life Gc involves accumulated knowledge. Thus as long as an individual keeps learning new information, Gc is less likely to decrease L.L.Thurstone examined scores of general intelligence tests and found seven different clusters of what he termed primary mental abilities including: reading, comprehension, spatial reasoning, numerical ability, and memory span an individual may experience a head injury or stroke and lose on ability without any loss in other aspects of intelligence Savants: are individuals with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas such as music, mathematics, or art

5 Robert Sternberg offers an alternative known as the triarchic theory of intelligence consisting of 3 domains: analytical intelligence, practical intelligence, and creative intelligence Analytical Intelligence: verbal, mathematical problem solving type of intelligence Practical Intelligence: ability to address real world problems that are encountered in daily life Creative Intelligence: the ability to create new ideas to solve problems Howard Gardener proposed the concept of Multiple Intelligences= a model claiming that 8 different forms of intelligence exist, each independent from the others Learning Styles: the hypothesis that individuals are fundamentally different in how they best acquire information Flynn Effect= refers to the steady population level increases in intelligence test scores over time 9.3: Researchers have found that the IQ of first born children is on average 3 points higher than that of second born siblings and 4 points higher than that of third born Anthropologist Samuel Morton measure skull sizes in an attempt to show racial and ethnic differences in cognitive ability and assumed that skull size and therefore intelligence were almost entirely genetically determined Sir Francis Galton studied intelligence to prove that certain families were intellectually superior because of the genes they inherited Behavioral Genetics examines how genes, environment, and their interaction influence behavior and cognition Robert Plomin put it, psychologists can study genetics, genes, and the genome. Plomin and Spinath describe behavior genetics as a three layered approach with each layer asking different questions:

6 Genetics: To what degree is intelligence an inherited trait? Genes: If intelligence does have a genetic component, which genes are involved Genome: If we can identify which genes contribute to intelligence, then how exactly do they contribute to brain development and function? To search for specific genes related to intelligence, researchers use Behavioral Genomics: The study of how specific genes, in their interactions with the environment, influence behavior Intelligence levels can be predicted to some degree by the collection of genes that individuals inherit Gene Knockout (KO) Studies: Involve removing a specific gene thought to be involved in a trait (such as intelligence) and testing the effects of removing the gene by comparing behavior of animals without the gene with those that have it removing one particular gene disrupted the ability of mice to learn spatial layouts can take the opposite approach: they can insert genetic material into mouse chromosomes to study the changes associated with the new gene. The animal that receives this so called gene transplant is referred to transgenic animal transgenic mice that have been given a gene regulating the chemical changes supporting memory formation outperform non transgenic mice clearly, genes have an effect on intelligence higher levels of stress hormones among poor children, which were negatively correlated with measures of cognitive ability. Children raised in impoverished orphanages show a remarkable recovery in intelligence after getting into foster care homes compared to those who remain behind Children born during the fist part of the calendar year have higher verbal and mathematical aptitude, according to a number of sources. Children who are the oldest in their class get the most out of school, perhaps because they are, on average, slightly more mature and prepared to learn Birth order has a slight impact on IQ scores Watching television at a very young age may slow the process of cognitive and intellectual development The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children younger than age 2 years do not watch television at all

7 The more time infants spend viewing educational television, the lower their verbal comprehension and performance scores achieved when tested at age 6 or 7 Verbal fluency tasks often tip in the favor of females. Average scores on tests of visual spatial manipulation ability tend to favor males Herrnstein and Murray presented a social argument based on meritocracy a society in which people with the most merit gain the most privilege and status differences in social class, rather than genetic heritage, may actually be responsible for the disparity in intelligence scores. The environment influences cognitive abilities in numerous ways. A cycle of poverty, low income, and low opportunity leads to lower scores on intelligence tests correlations do not provide evidence for cause and effect relationships. We shouldn t assume that the genetic patterns that contribute to a particuluar5 race also accounts for differences in intelligence. In fact, correlations often support a reasoning error known as the confirmation bias: If you believe something is true, then you are likely to interpret a correlation in a way that supports your conviction Carol Dweck why smart people can be so stupid? Entity Theory the belief that intelligence is a fixed characteristic and relatively difficult (or impossible) to change Incremental Theory the belief that intelligence can be shaped by experiences, practice, and effort Those who help entity theories were more likely to give up in the face of highly challenging problems, and they were likely to withdraw situations that resulted in failure incremental views= motivated to succeed at a tsk then they will work through failures and challenges beliefs affect cognitive performance Carol Dweck and colleague Lisa Sorich Blackwell developed a program called Brainology that is designed to help elementary school, middle school, and high school students achieve higher levels of confidence and motivation by teaching them that the brain can be strengthened through experience

8 Stereotypes can certainly affect how one performs on tests of aptitude and achievement Stereotype Threat: when people are aware of stereotypes about their social group, they may fear being reduced to that stereotype Disidentification can be seen in African American students who early in school have similar test scores to White students, but over time become separated from their White counterparts by an achievement gap First stereotype threat leads to physiological anxiety, resulting in more than just physical discomfort during tests

9 Life Span Development 01/08/2014 Developmental Psychology= is the study of change and stability of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioral characteristics across the life span Developemental psychologsts generally rely on a few different designs for measuring how psychological

10 01/08/2014

Myers Psychology for AP, 2e

Myers Psychology for AP, 2e David G. Myers PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, 2014 AP is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board, which