GOAL SETTING THEORY & SUGGESTED APPLICATIONS Bennett Nelson November 18, 2014 The University of Akron

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1 Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Applications 1 GOAL SETTING THEORY & SUGGESTED APPLICATIONS Bennett Nelson November 18, 2014 The University of Akron INTRODUCTION The demands on students and professionals seem to be ever increasing. The lists of obligations grow longer, the tasks more complex, and the timelines less accommodating. As the demands increase, the levels of stress felt by these individuals increase and their productivity is prone to decrease. Perhaps the best way to reduce stress and increase or maintain productivity over an extended period is to set goals. Goals allow individuals to define and limit work, set milestones to ensure that a given task is on track, and understand the appropriate times to take necessary breaks from work. All of these allow individuals to increase their productivity and reduce stress. PROBLEM Though goal setting has been touted by management consultants and other productivity experts since the 1950s, many students and professionals do not know how to properly set and measure goals. OBJECTIVES The primary objective of this report and related presentation is to compile and explain existing research on goal setting theory. A secondary objective is to demonstrate the goal-setting model in terms of a simple project. Both objectives are aimed at providing a technique that could be employed to increase productivity and reduce stress. SCOPE Goal setting has been the focus of motivation studies since the late 1950s. It is the nature of this study to provide a synthesis of some of the most significant findings in the field of goal setting since that time. There have been some major findings as to how these goals need to be worded, what elements must be present, and what intermediate steps must be met for the process to be successful. OUTLINE OF RESEARCH In order to gain an understanding of effective goal setting, a review of scholarly publications on the topic will be performed. This review is aimed at learning the historical basis of goal-setting theory as well as modern interpretations and contemporary findings on the effectiveness of goal setting. Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Application 1

2 Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Applications 2 SCOPE (Cont.) LIMITATIONS Unfortunately, there is insufficient time allotted for this report to conduct an independent study that would verify these results. Despite this limitation, there are decades of research into this topic which provides significant evidence and verification on some particularly significant findings. HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS FINDINGS In 1958, a scientific study concluded that effort was maximized when the task was moderately difficult, neither too easy nor too difficult. In 1989, an additional study was conducted that found when asked to do their best, subjects do not actually perform at their peak. This is because the subjects had no direction with which to guide their efforts. In short, this study found that specifying particular and measurable expectations increased worker productivity (Locke, Chah, Harrison, & Lustgarten 285). CURRENT UNDERSTANDING In 2002, an article on the subject of goal setting summarized the current understanding of how goals influence behavior. The authors of the article, Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, spent much of their career studying the psychological and practical effects of goal setting. They contended that goal setting had four primary mechanisms. The first mechanism served to direct action, the second mechanism served to energize the goal-setter, the third mechanism served to increase persistence in achieving the state goal, and the fourth mechanism served to increase the recall of knowledge related to the stated goal (Locke & Latham 706-7). These mechanisms are the cognitive and motivational drivers that make goal setting a successful practice. In addition to research on the reasons why goal setting is effective, Locke and Latham examined situations in which individuals and organizations applied goal setting. In one such situation, which was originally studied by Latham, a truck driver was first told to do his best to ensure that his loads were close to the legally allowed maximum. Then, his manager told him to meet a specific and challenging goal (Latham & Baldes 122-4). The chart below (Figure 1) demonstrates how goal setting can increase performance. Furthermore, studies have linked effective goal setting to organizational profitability (Terpstra & Rozell 82). Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Application 2

3 Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Applications 3 FINDINGS (Cont.) Figure 1.) PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Understanding that goal setting can significantly increase performance, it is important then to understand how to go about setting effective goals. Students at Pennsylvania State University (Penn State) have compiled much of the work done by Locke, Latham and other psychologists in the field and comprised two primary models that can be used to set effective goals. The first of these two models is the SMART Goal model. This model was originally proposed by Kenneth Blanchard and Spencer Johnson in the early 1980s and shared in a book authored by Kenneth Blanchard, Drea Zigarmi, and Patricia Zigarmi (Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Zigarmi). This model is still used today in nearly the same form as originally proposed with some alterations to make the model more practical. Below is the SMART model compiled by Penn State. Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Application 3

4 Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Applications 4 FINDINGS (Cont.) Figure 2.) SMART Model for Goal Setting Redmond, Brian F., and Lauren M. Padgett. "Goal Setting Theory." Confluence. Pennsylvania State University, 5 Oct Web. 12 Nov The second method is more analytical and focuses on goals that have already been stated. It analyzes stated goals based upon 4 criteria that have been proven to be essential elements of a successful goal. For the aforementioned mechanisms of goal setting to work, a goal must be analyzed for (1) goal acceptance or commitment, (2) goal specificity, (3) goal difficulty, and (4) [effective channels of] feedback on progress toward the goal (Redmond & Padgett). In other words, an individual or organization that is pursuing a goal needs to take the necessary time to build an infrastructure surround the goal it wishes to pursue. CRITICISMS DISCUSSION Goal Setting has been criticized for being too narrow in focus. Latham himself has found that having multiple goals may be too demanding and overwhelm the individual (Latham 129). Furthermore, having fewer well thought out goals has shown to be more effective than having multiple lower quality goals (Gergen & Vanourek). Additionally, Penn State studies have found that a narrow focus on one singular goal may lead individuals to neglect other responsibilities at work (Redmond et al.). However, supporters of goal setting theory have said that the goal setter can address these objections easily. Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Application 4

5 Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Applications 5 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS Goal setting as a practice has proven to be effective when using models that ensure the goals are challenging, achievable and measureable. When faced with difficult or multifaceted projects or objectives, a goal-setting model can be used to reduce stress and increase productivity. Taking the time to divide a project into challenging and measurable goals that are set to specific timelines can ensure that we are happier and healthier people despite increasing demands. To ensure that the goal setting process is utilized to its most beneficial extent, it is recommended that several quality goals are set that divide any project or task into several attainable aspects. This will allow individuals to distribute effort effectively across the various aspects of large project. For example, when writing a research paper, one might say, I will finish the abstract portion of the paper before Tuesday. They might also plan to have additional sections completed on certain following days. In addition to small attainable goals, setting larger goals pertaining to quality and quantity of a project may help in putting together quality work without putting excess time into the project. For example, I want to cite at least 10 peer-reviewed scholarly sources is a goal that will ensure that the research is sufficient in both quality and quantity. Furthermore, I will only work on the project for 2 hours on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday will ensure that other priorities will be attended to properly. Lastly, setting macro-goals for the year or other extended period will ensure that time in effort in your life (generally speaking) is being properly distributed. For example, one of the pitfalls faced by many students and young professionals is overpromising their time. If one wanted to maintain a good idea of how ones time is distributed, one might keep track of how their time is spent over a week and then alter their goals to distribute their time more effectively. If someone feels as though their relationships are deteriorating, they may track their behavior, find that they only make one phone call to friends or family each week, and then commit themselves to make two additional phone calls each week for the next month. Goal setting is a great way to focus and allocate effort when dealing with several demanding priorities. It allows individuals to use their time and talents efficiently. Goal setting is an excellent tool that allows us to reduce stress and increase productivity, which is key to success when facing demanding workloads. Goal Setting Theory & Suggested Application 5