Need Saliency and Subjective Well-Being in the Aged : Subcultural Differences in Plural India

Transcription

1 Need Saliency and Subjective Well-Being in the Aged : Subcultural Differences in Plural India Fakir M. Sahoo Xavier Institute of Management, Bhubaneswar, India

2 Abstract The present work is geared to examine two fundamental hypotheses. First, subjective wellbeing of the aged is significantly related to salient need satisfaction. Second, subjective wellbeing is unrelated to non-salient need satisfaction. The study adopted a 2 (sex) x 4 (setting) design where males and females were sampled from four different settings (urban, semi-urban, rural and tribal locations). The dependent measures included perceived importance of needs, salient need satisfaction, non-salient need satisfaction, total need satisfaction, and well-being. The measure consisted of a multipart instrument where the participants ranked a list of 17 needs. The list included freedom to use leisure, opportunity to play and talk with grandchildren, financial self-sufficiency, autonomous activity, living with married sons / daughters, opportunity to visit new places, medical facility, entertainment, interacting with age-mates, food as per personal choice, outdoor games, possibility for being cared for, sanitary living, autonomy to talk out, observing festivals, self-security, and non-lonely residence. The identification of salient needs offered interesting features (opportunity to play and talk with grand-children emerging as a salient need in semi-urban, rural and tribal locations) Hypothesis that well-being is related to salient need satisfaction was supported and major policy implications were discussed. Key words: Ageing, Need saliency, Well-being, Perceived needs, Cultural pluralism, Salient needs, Non-salient needs

3 Introduction The study of the positive aspects of ageing (referred to as positive ageing, healthy ageing, successful ageing, and ageing well) is only several decades old. It will become a primary focus of psychological science, however given the trends in demography. A global phenomenon has hit Indian shores as well. People are living longer. Expectation of life at birth for males has shown a steady rise from 42 years to 60 years in It is projected to be 67 years in , an increase of about 9 years in a twenty-five-year period ( to ). In the case of females, the increase in expectation of life has been higher, about 11 years, during the same period, from 58 years in to 69 years in At age 60 too, the expectation of life shows a steady rise and is a little higher for women. Increased life expectancy has contributed to an increase in the number of persons 60+. From only 12 million persons 60+ in India in 1901, the number crossed 24 million in 1951 and 57 million in Population projections for made by the Technical group on population projections (1996) indicate that the 100 million mark is expected to reach in Projections beyond 2016 made by the United Nations (1990) has indicated that India will have 198 million persons 60+ in 2020 and 326 million in The percentage of persons 60+ in the total population has been a steady rise from 5.1 percent in 1901 to 6.8 percent in It is expected to reach 8.9 percent in Well-Being of the Aged Well-being of aged persons has been mandated in the Constitution of India. Article 41, Directive Principles of State Policy has directed that the State shall, within the limits of the economic capacity and development, make effective provisions for securities, right to public assistance in case of old age. There are other provisions too, which direct the state to improve the quality of life of its citizen. Right to equality has been guaranteed by the Constitution as Fundamental right. This provision applies equally to older persons. Social security has been made the concurrent responsibility of the central and state Governments. India, a sub-continent that carries 15 percent of the world s population, is gradually undergoing a demographic change as a result of many factors including specific development programmes. With decline in fertility and mortality rates accompanied by an improvement in child survival and increased life expectancy, a significant feature of demographic change is the progressive increase in the number of older people (as indicated earlier).

4 In the past, the traditional values in India coupled with a large number of joint families offered a system of care-giving for the elderly. The elderly were looked after by their sons and daughter-in-laws. Although some form of functionally joint-families (where elderly parents live in rural areas and their sons and daughters visit them at the time of their sickness or at the time of some family / village ceremonies) exist in many states of Indian Union, these are on the decline (Sahoo, 1999). Nuclear families constitute the norm of the present-day India. Industrialization, urbanization, education and exposure to modern Indian life style bring in changes in values and life styles. Much higher costs of bringing up and educating children and pressures for gratification of their desires affects transfer of shares of income for the care of the parents. Due to shortage of space in dwellings in urban areas and high rents, migrants prefer to leave their parents in their native place. Changing role and expectations of women, their concept of privacy and space, desire not to be encumbered by caring responsibilities of old people for a long periods, career ambitions and employment outside the home implies considerably reduced time for care giving. The position of single persons, particularly females, is more vulnerable in old age as few persons are willing to take care for non-lineal relatives. So also is the situation of widows. The official statistics reveal that large segments of the aged in India are in predicament. A review of the Government of India Five Year Plans shows very limited and inconsistent concern for the aged. The only welfare measure for the aged was the running of old age homes. The Eighth and Ninth Plans however incorporated forty more specific and comprehensive welfare measures for the aged such as provision of old age homes, day care centres, and Medicare. Initiatives for Older Persons during Tenth Plan as contemplated in the National Policy on Older Persons (NPOP), a National Council for Older Persons (reconstituted in 2005) has been set up to advise and aid the government on policies and programmes for older people. Although current estimates of poverty amongst the aged are not available, it is certain that there are millions of elderly people below the official poverty line and majority of the elderly people are living in the rural and tribal areas. India is a plural society and tribals constitute approximately 8 percent of Indian population. In Odisha, tribals constitute approximately 22 percent of the population. While development is needed in all the domains of lives of the elderly, it is important to delineate the seminal sectors of well-being. In this context, the construct of need saliency offers a comprehensive framework.

5 The Construct of Need Saliency Maslow (1965), the father of humanistic psychology, deserves credit for analyzing human needs and suggesting their break-up in hierarchical order. According to him, man s needs are arranged in a hierarchy or importance ranging from the lowest need (physiological) to safety, love, self-esteem (ego), and finally self-actualizations. This hierarchy of prepotency of urgency of satisfaction means that the most urgent needs will be monopolized. Man is continuously wanting. Therefore all needs are never fully-satisfied. As soon as one s need is satisfied, its prepotency diminishes and the next higher unsatisfied need emerges to replace it. This is a never-ending process which serves to motivate people to strive to satisfy their needs. Finally, the needs are interdependent and overlapping. Herzberg s (1959) theory of motivation has been referred to as the motivator-hygiene theory. It has some basis assumptions. First, the factors that are present when job satisfaction is produced are separate and distinct from factors that lead to job dissatisfaction. The satisfier relates to the content or nature of the job and dissatisfier describes the employee s relationship to the context of environment in which they engage their work. Therefore, satisfier relates to what employee does, dissatisfier to the environment in which they do it. So it is the hygiene factor that affects job dissatisfaction, whereas motivational factors make people happy with their job by serving need for psychological growth. Alderfer (1972) advocated the ERG theory which is basically a reworking of Maslow s theory. There are three groups of core needs; existence, relatedness, and growth. The existence of group provides our basic material existence requirements. This is the counterpart of the physiological and safety needs of Maslow. Relatedness refers to the desire for maintaining important interpersonal relationships and tally with Maslow s love needs and external component of esteem need. Growth needs denote an intrinsic desire for personal development. This includes the intrinsic component of esteem and characteristic of self-actualization. This theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy and all the three categories can operate at the same time. This theory also contends that when a higherorder-need level is frustrated, the individuals desire to increase a low level needs takes place. This theory is more sensitive to individual difference. McClelland (1961) proposed the three need theory which opines that these needs are important in organizational setting to understand motivation. The three needs are the needs for achievement, power and affiliation. If all the theories of motivation are compared, it is found that they emphasize similar sets of relationships. Maslow views the rarely satisfied higher level needs as motivating force. Herzberg

6 sees satisfiers as motivating force. Alderfer considers growth needs to be the most important and McClelland views power needs as motivators. In recent time, most of the organizational theories are influenced by Maslow s conceptualization. His identification of the basic individual needs find an important place in present day management literature. However, most of theories discussed earlier are based on their observation of individualistic western societies where the need for personal achievement, control and autonomy are considered most important. In contrast, in the developing eastern societies, societal security is considered more important to life than one s freedom and control. People may find work very interesting if it guarantees such security, but may not care for freedom and control. The collectivist nature of Indian social system contrasts with individualistic western societies where individual is given primary importance. Consequently, the use of Maslow-type of framework which basically evolved in me societies of the West is inapplicable in nonwestern societies. It is also observed that western employees maintain a gap between norms in the family and norms in work spheres. However, as family influences are deeply ingrained in the Indian psyche, there is a great deal of carry-over effect from family to work norms. The western model assumes that protestant ethic type socialization training is the only way of bringing higher involvement. This work ethic trains people to believe that autonomy and personal achievement needs are salient and can provide opportunities for the expression of one s individuality. Countries like India promote in their members a sense of collectivism and saliency for some other needs. Indian people develop beliefs in centrality of work not because work can promote personal achievement, but because the work can fulfill the collective goals of brotherhood and sharing of life. It was also felt that the satisfaction of intrinsic work needs does not necessarily lead to greater involvement. Most existing instruments to measure alienation reflect a cultural bias, as they include items that place emphasis only on intrinsic need satisfaction. According to Kanungo (1982), Empirical research on worker s alienation and involvement in both sociological and psychological literature is fought with conceptual ambiguities. In addition, instruments developed to measure work alienation and involvement often contain inherent methodological inadequacies, since they are based on constructs that are conceptually ambiguous.

7 The lack of cross-cultural applicability of western-based theories has led Kanungo (1982) to propose a new pancultral formulation. This represents the motivational approach termed the need saliency model. Therefore, the fundamental concept in this model is the saliency of needs which is in contradistinction to need hierarchy. The motivational approach has universal applicability. In contrast to the humanistic approach there is no value orientation in this motivational approach. In this scheme, the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic needs become unnecessary. Potency of each of the needs is considered in terms of its relation to a given subset of human population. The motivational approach of need saliency model offers a framework having greater cross-cultural generality. Sahoo and his associates have examined the relevance of the construct of need saliency in the context of motivation in India (Sahoo & Das, 2011; Sahoo, Sahoo, & Das, 2011). Sahoo and Das (2001) found that motivation of students in colleges is significantly related to the satisfaction of their salient needs. Similarly, Sahoo et al (2011) investigated such association in private and public sector organizations, administrative and financial organizations, various levels of educational institutions (schools, colleges, and universities), and different wings (air force, navy and army) of military settings. They found support for their fundamental proposition that employees motivation is significantly related to salient need satisfaction. Furthermore, Sahoo has also examined this proposition in the context of human happiness. He found that happiness is significantly linked with the satisfaction of salient needs (Sahoo, 2009). The construct of need saliency seems to have relevance in the context of the aged in India. It is axiomatic that psychological well-being is a major concern for all categories of populations in the world. It has an added significance for the aged. As observed by Ramamurti (2004), an examination of the psychological and social aspects of ageing is an essential part of understanding the Indian gerontological work. However, it is asserted that the provisions of all types of benefit system may be beyond the means of a single nation state (India). But the conceptualization of elder care within the framework of salient needs would provide both theoretical as well as pragmatic solution to the question of psychological health. Jai Prakash (2004) also posits that the issues of mental health of older people in India need to be addressed in terms of appropriate sociocultural context. In view of the importance of culture-specific needs of a given subset of human population, it is postulated that the identification of salient needs is a prerequisite step for elder care in India. More specifically, the following hypotheses are formulated for empirical testing:

8 (1) Psychological well-being of the aged is related to salient need satisfaction. (2) Psychological well-being of the aged is unrelated to non-salient need satisfaction. Method of Study The basic purpose of the study is to examine the proposition that well-being among the aged is significantly related to satisfaction of salient needs. Accordingly a sequence of activity is undertaken to test this proposition. An Overview of the Design The study adopts a 2(sex) x 4(setting) design where males and females are sampled from four different settings (urban, semi-urban, rural and tribal locations). The dependent measures include perceived importance of needs, satisfaction of salient needs, satisfaction of non-salient needs, total satisfaction of needs and various indicators of well-being as well as overall wellbeing. The indicators of well-being include competence, physical health, freedom from anxiety, person morale, freedom from depression, autonomy, trust, social support, perception of control, happiness in family, effective coping, job involvement, social contact, achievement, and feelings of spirituality. Settings and Samples As indicated earlier, males and females were sampled from four different settings of the state of Odisha. Urban participants were drawn from the city of Cuttack whereas semi-urban participants were samples from suburban locations surrounding the town of Dhenkanal. The aged people from rural setting were drawn from rural areas of Dhenkanal district. Tribal participants were drawn from Phupgaon and Kasibaha Panchayats of Koksra Block of Kalahandi district of Odisha. There were altogether 326 participants. The distribution can be schematically presented: Settings Males Females Total Urban Semi-urban Rural Tribal Total Note: The age ranged from 60 years to 73 years (M = 63.6 and SD = 8.76)

9 Measures The data gathering tool consists of a multi-part instrument specifically developed and validated for this purpose. The specific subscales include perceived importance of needs, need satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Measure of Perceived Importance of Needs. Part 1 of the questionnaire presents a list of 17 needs as experienced by the aged person in our country. The list includes freedom to use leisure in one s own way, opportunity to play and talk with grandchildren, financial selfsufficiency, autonomous activities, living with married sons/daughters, opportunity to visit new places including places of religious interest, facility for medical check-ups, opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio), facility to interact with age-mates, food as per personal choice, facility for outdoor games, possibility for being nursed (being cared for), sanitary living (residential) conditions, autonomy to talk out, freedom to observe festivals of personal choice, an environment with self-security, and non-lonely residence. Participants are asked to read all the needs and rank order them in terms of priority. In other words, they are asked to indicate 1 against the need they consider most important and indicate 2 against the next most important need. Accordingly they are advised to write 3, 4, 5... to indicate decreasing order of their need priority. On the basis of the responses of participants, it is possible to identify salient and nonsalient needs of an individual. Salient needs are those that are rated first and second by the individual. Non-salient needs are those that are rated sixteenth and seventeenth. It is also possible to identify salient and non-salient needs of a given subset of human population on the basis of mean of priority ratings. Need Satisfaction Measure. Part 2 of the scale measures the extent of satisfaction of each of the seventeen needs. All the seventeen needs are indicated in a random order. Participants are asked to indicate the extent of need fulfillment on a five-point scale where 0 is indicative of the response that the need is not at all satisfied and 4 denotes that the need is exceedingly satisfied. This part of the scale generates salient need satisfaction score (sum of ratings across two salient needs of an individual), non-salient need satisfaction score (sum of ratings across two non-salient needs) of an individual, and total need satisfaction score (sum of ratings across all seventeen needs).

10 Measure of Psychological Well-Being: Part 3 of the scale presents 14 dimensions of psychological well-being. These dimensions were derived in a factor analytic study carried out earlier (Sahoo, 2006). The dimensions includes competence, physical health, freedom from anxiety, person s morale, freedom from depression, autonomy, trust, social support, perception of control, happiness in family, effective coping, job involvement, achievement, and feelings of spirituality. Each dimension is presented in the form of a semantic differential. For example, the dimension of competence is presented: Incompetent Competent Participants are asked to encircle the number that closely characterizes their condition. The use of this semantic differential method generates an individuals score for each dimension. Furthermore, an overall score of psychological well-being can be determined by summing the scores across all fourteen dimensions. Finally, the measure also requires an individual to indicate his/her personal information such as sex, age, education and residence. Procedure Individuals were contacted in their natural habitat. Rapport was established prior to test administration. All participants were individually administered the test. The help of local people, especially in tribal setting, was enlisted for test administration. With a view to examining the proposed hypotheses, parametric statistical computations were carried out. Results The identification of salient and non-salient needs, need satisfaction and psychological wellbeing are the key-variables in this study. The analysis is carried out across four different settings: urban, semi-urban, rural and tribal. In addition, the proposition that salient need satisfaction is significantly related to psychological well-being is examined. The findings can be summarized under different rubrics. Perceived Importance of Needs. An important feature of the study involves participants rank-ordering seventeen needs. The identification of salient and non-salient needs across urban, semi-urban, rural and tribal settings, provides interesting features. The identification of such needs across males and females also offers useful information. It may be indicated that

11 salient needs are those that are rated first and second by the participants. Non-salient needs are those that are rated sixteenth and seventeenth by the participants. As shown by Table 1, financial self-sufficiency emerges as a salient need of males in all the settings considered, though its assigned position is first in semi-urban and rural groups and second in urban and tribal group of males. Urban and semi-urban males view autonomous activities as other salient need. Rural males consider the facility for medical check-up and facility to interact with age mates as other salient needs. Interestingly tribals males view availability of food as per their personal choice as the most salient need. Insert Table 1 here Females in the settings of semi-urban, disadvantaged rural and tribal locations also view financial self-sufficiency as a salient need. However, like urban males, urban females view autonomous activity as a salient need. It is important to note that the opportunity to play and talk with grandchildren emerges as another salient need in urban, semi-urban and rural settings. Only in the context of tribal setting, females, like their male counterparts, view the availability of food as per personal choice as a salient need. General group of females from rural areas indicate the opportunity to visit new places as a salient need whereas disadvantaged group of females from rural setting view the facility for medical checkup as a salient need. As expected, there is not much uniformity with respect to non-salient needs. Facility for outdoor games, non-lonely residence and opportunity for entertainment emerge as non-salient needs in many settings. There is also not much difference across males and females with respect to non-salient needs (see Table 1) Need Saliency and Well-Being. The most important aspect of the present study involves the hypothesis that salient need satisfaction is significantly related to psychological well-being. As shown by Table 2, this proposition is strongly supported. The product moment Insert Table 2 here correlation coefficients have been computed between each of well-being dimensions and salient need satisfaction. As shown by Table 2, salient need satisfaction is significantly correlated with many of the well-being dimensions. In the context of urban setting, seven out of fourteen cases reach the level of significance. However, in semi-urban setting, only one correlation coefficient reaches the level of significance. Of course, in rural setting seven out of fourteen cases reach the level of significance and nine out of fourteen cases reach the level of significance in tribal setting.

12 Insert Table 3 here More importantly, all correlations reach the level of statistical significance when the total pool of participants is considered (see Table 2). Similarly, when the overall psychological well-being is considered, the association between salient need satisfaction and well-being emerges significant in all settings except the semi-urban setting. In urban setting, salient need satisfaction is significantly related to well being, r (99) =.35, p<.01. In the settings of rural and tribal locations, there are also significant associations, r (64) =.43, p<.01 and r (92) =.41, p<.01, respectively. Furthermore, there is significant relationship between salient need satisfaction and well-being when the total group of participants is considered, r (324) =.58, p<.01. However, the correlations between non-salient needs and well-being also emerge to be significant in many cases. This is not in line with our expectation (see Table 3). Finally, as expected total need satisfaction is found to be significantly related to wellbeing (see Table 4). Insert Table 4 here Discussion The primary objective of the present investigation was to examine need saliency hypothesis. It was hypothesized that psychological well-being of the aged is significantly related to salient need satisfaction. It was further postulated that well-being is unrelated to non-salient need satisfaction. Although the first hypothesis is amply supported, the second one is not supported. It appears that all the needs are considered important in the context of mental health. Although salient needs are identified on the basis of participants rating of first and second and nonsalient needs in terms of sixteenth and seventeenth ranks, it seems that individuals also consider low-ranked needs as important in the context of health. Despite such pictures, the hypothesis that well-being is associated with salient need satisfaction deserves research attention. It is important to recognize that the identifications of salient needs offer an interesting feature. Males in all the settings view financial self-sufficiency as a salient need. This is consistent with my expectations. Sidhu (2006) has also found that a sense of financial security is linked with successful adjustment of the elderly. Excepting disadvantaged females in rural setting and females in tribal setting, females in other settings view the opportunity to play and talk with grandchildren as a salient need.

13 Although the study has been conducted in the context of subcultural differences in India, the findings signal an important pointer for other cultures as well. It is the greying across the world which is pushing the world into a severe crisis (Bhatia, 2012). Prevention programmes for the aged can focus on many different objectives including need satisfaction. Since the satisfaction of all needs is beyond the means of any nation, screening is necessary to generate a workable list of living conditions. Interestingly the present finding stressing the opportunity to talk with grand-children corroborates Payne s (1977) focus on personal engagement in the western context. One such intriguing primary prevention programme, called Grandma Please, involves grand-children who telephone their grandparents after school (Szendre & Jose, 1996). Although the results of this programme have been mixed, they are based on compelling premise that keeping the aged involved and actively participating in their families prevents them from spiraling into lives of isolation and depression. This arrangement is consistent with positions adopted in positive psychology (Snyder, Lopez & Pedrotti, 2011). The MacArther Foundation Study of Successful Aging also stresses life engagement. Incidentally many planners and builders of old age homes in India are now contemplating to set up old age homes and orphanages in close proximity such that residents of these two institutes would conveniently visit each other. A basic feedback generated from the study points to the direction of interacting with the target population. Implications The support for need saliency theory and differential pattern of salient needs suggest two major implications. First, policy makers, planners and researchers generally have their preconceived notions about people s needs. They are inclined to rigidly believe that these are important needs of people. However, programmes built on these assumptions may fall flat. The present finding strongly suggests that salient (important) needs as perceived by people have to be empirically identified. Instead of preconceived notions, it is scientific to generate a list of salient needs of a given population on the basis of observation, interview and other probe techniques. The proposition that salient needs are specific to a particular subset of human population has to be respected. Second, wellness-promotion programmes need to consider conditions of satisfaction of salient needs in the beginning. Since it may not be possible to fulfill all the needs, it is wiser to

14 focus on the salient needs. This is also true in the context of the psychological well-being of the elderly. The programmes geared at the satisfaction of salient needs of the aged is likely to promote psychological well-being and happiness. References Alderfer, C.P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth. New York. Free Press. Bhatia, H.I. (2012). Ageing: Some conceptual issues. International Journal of Development and Social Research, 3(1), 1-8. Herzberg, F. (1959). The motivation to work. New York. Free Press. Jai Prakash, I. (2004). Mental health of older people in India. In P.V. Ramamurti and D. Jamuna (Eds). Handbook of Indian gerontology. New Delhi: Serials Publication Kanungo, R.N. (1980). Work alienation. New York: Free Press Maslow, A.H. (1965). Eupsychian management. Homes-hood, Illionis, USA: Darsy-Irwin McClelland, D.C. (1962). The achieving society. Princeton, Illinois, USA: Van Nostrand. Payne, B.P. (1977). The older volunteer: Social role continuity and development. The Gerentologist, 29, Ramamurti, P.V. (2004). Psychological and social aspects of ageing in India. In P.V. Ramamurti and D. Jamuna (Eds.). Handbook of Indian gerontology. New Delhi: Serials Publication Sahoo, F.M. (1999). Psychological well-being of the aged of Orissan family. In J.K. Baral and A. Choudhury (Eds), Family in transition: Power and development. New Delhi: Northen Book Centre. Sahoo, F.M. (2006). Health Behaviour Questionnaire. Unpublished Report, Psychology Department, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, India Sahoo, F.M. (2009). Need saliency and human happiness. In M.V.R. Raju (Ed), Health psychology and counselling (pp ). New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.

15 Sahoo, F.M. & Das, N. (2011). Management of students motivation in the context higher education in India: An indigenous model. PES Business Review, 6(2), Sahoo, F.M., Sahoo, K., & Das, N. (2001). Need saliency and management of employee motivation: Test of an indigenous model. Vilakshan, 8(1), Sidhu, R. (2006). Adjustment and loneliness among the aged. Journal of Community Guidance and Research, 23(2), Snyder, C.R., Lopez, S.J., & Pedrotti, J.T. (2001). Positive psychology (second edition). New Delhi: Sage. Szendre, E.N., & Jose, J.E. (1996). Telephone support by elderly volunteers to inner-city children. Journal of Community Psychology, 24,

16 Table 1 : Identification of Salient and Non- Salient Needs across Settings Settings Salient Needs Non - Salient Needs Males Females Males Females Urban 1 Autonomous Activities 2 Financial selfsufficiency 1 Autonomous Activities 2 Opportunity to play and talk with grand children 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Non-lonely residence 1 Food as per person's choice 2 Facility for outdoor games Semi - urban 1 Financial selfsufficiency 1 Opportunity to play and talk with grand - children 1 Facility for outdoor games 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Autonomous Activities 2 Financial selfsufficiency 2 Non-lonely residence 2 Non-lonely residence Rural (General) 1 Financial selfsufficiency and Facility for medical check-ups 1 Opportunity to play and talk with grand - children 1 Facility for outdoor games 1 Freedom to use leisure in one's own way Rural (Disadvantaged groups) 2 Facility to interact with age-mates 1 Financial selfsufficiency 2 Facility for medical check-ups 2 Opportunity to visit new places 1 Financial selfsufficiency 2 Facility for medical checkups 2 Opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio) 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio) 2 Non - lonely residence 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio) Tribal 1 Food as per personal choice 2 Financial selfsufficiency 1 Food as per personal choice 2 Financial selfsufficiency 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio) 1 Facility for outdoor games 2 Opportunity for entertainment (TV/Radio)

17 Table 2 : Product Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Salient Need Satisfaction and Well - Being Dimensions Well-being dimensions Urban Setting (n = 101) Semi - urban setting (n = 65) Rural setting (n = 66) Tribal setting ( n = 94) All participants (N = 326) 1 Competence **.32** 2 Physical health ** 3 Freedom from anxiety.31** **.30** 4 Person's morale *.19.30** 5 Freedom from depression.30**.17.41**.21*.39** 6 Autonomy.44**.19.35**.19.51** 7 Trust.29** **.08.17** 8 Social support.26** *.26** 9 Perception of control.19.32**.22.30**.42** 10 Happiness in family.23*.17.39**.38**.50** 11 Effective coping **.40** 12 Job involvement *.35**.47** 13 Achievement.20*.13.43**.58**.55** 14 Feeling of spirituality ** 15 Overall well-being.35**.24.43**.41**.58** Note: * p <.05 ; ** p<.01

18 Table 3 : Product Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Non - Salient Need Satisfaction and Well - Being Dimensions Well-being dimensions Urban Setting (n = 101) Semi - urban setting (n = 65) Rural setting (n = 66) Tribal setting ( n = 94) All participants (N = 326) 1 Competence **.26** 2 Physical health *.14* 3 Freedom from anxiety **.07.23** 4 Person's morale * 5 Freedom from depression.31** **.41** 6 Autonomy.11.40**.28*.03.42** 7 Trust.29** **.20** 8 Social support *.45**.29** 9 Perception of control *.13.28** 10 Happiness in family.11.31*.15.41**.45** 11 Effective coping *.28** 12 Job involvement.17.32* ** 13 Achievement.07.36** ** 14 Feeling of spirituality ** 15 Overall well-being.24*.31*.11.26*.49** Note: * p <.05 ; ** p <.01

19 Table 4 : Product Moment Correlation Coefficients Between Total Need Satisfaction and Well - Being Dimensions Well-being dimensions Urban Setting (n = 101) Semi - urban setting (n = 65) Rural setting (n = 66) Tribal setting ( n = 94) All participants (N = 326) 1 Competence ** 2 Physical health ** 3 Freedom from anxiety.28**.20.37**.20.36** 4 Person's morale.21* ** 5 Freedom from depression.51**.44**.49**.46**.55** 6 Autonomy.45**.54**.51**.44**.64** 7 Trust.39**.28*.19.44**.30** 8 Social support.48**.30*.06.46**.36** 9 Perception of control.35** **.46** 10 Happiness in family.43**.38**.46**.74**.67** 11 Effective coping.27** **.48** 12 Job involvement.23**.44**.22.46**.57** 13 Achievement.26**.32**.23.48**.57** 14 Feeling of spirituality.22**.28*.04.33**.38** 15 Overall well-being.52**.55**.49**.67**.73** Note: * p<.05 ; ** p<.01

20 Foot Note Correspondence regarding the article should be addressed to Fakir M. Sahoo, Research Professor, Xavier Institute of Management, Xavier Square, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.