Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 2

Transcription

1 Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 2

2 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD IIwin Altman, Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah Michael Brill, BUffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation, Buffalo, New York Gary W. Evans (EDRA Board Representative), Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California Mark Francis, Department of Environmental Design, University of California, Davis, California M. Powell Lawton, Philadelphia Geriatric Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Robert W. Marans, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan J. Douglas Porteous, Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia Daniel Stokols, Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irivine, California A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

3 Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design VOLUME 2 Edited by ERVIN H. ZUBE School of Renewable Natural Resources University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona and GARY T. MOORE School of Architecture and Urban Planning University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Milwaukee, Wisconsin Published in cooperation with the Environmental Design Research Association PLENUM PRESS NEW YORK AND LONDON

4 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number ISBN : 1O.IOO7t e-isbn-13: Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation 233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

5 D Con tribu tors Tommy Garling, Environmental Psychology Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Umea, Umea, Sweden Reginald G. Golledge, Department of Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara, California Graeme John Hardie, Center for Design Research and Service, School of Design, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina William H. Ittelson, Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona Gerhard Kaminski, Department of Psychology, University of Tiibingen, Tiibingen, Federal Republic of Germany Roderick J. Lawrence, Center for Human Ecology and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland Willo Pequegnat, Environmental Design Research Association, Bethesda, Maryland Henry Sanoff, School of Design, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina Herbert W. Schroeder, North Central Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Chicago, Illinois v

6 vi Contributors Sally A. Shumaker, Behavioral Medicine Branch, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland Francis T. Ventre, College of Architecture and Urban Studies, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia Richard Wener, Environment-Behavior Studies Program, Social Sciences Department, Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, New York

7 D Preface This second volume in the Advances in Environment, Behavior, and Design series follows the pattern of Volume 1. It is organized into six sections consisting of advances in theory, place research, user group research, sociobehavioral research, research and design methods, and research utilization. The authors of the chapters in this volume represent a range of disciplines, including architecture, geography, psychology, social ecology, and urban planning. They also offer international perspectives: Tommy Garling from Sweden, Graeme Hardie from South Africa (recently relocated to North Carolina), Gerhard Kaminski from the Federal Republic of Germany, and Roderick Lawrence from Switzerland (formerly from Australia). Although most chapters address topics or issues that are likely to be familiar to readers (environmental perception and cognition, facility programming, and environmental evaluation), four chapters address what the editors perceive to be new topics for environment, behavior, and design research. Herbert Schroeder reports on advances in research on urban forestry. For most of us the term forest probably conjures up visions of dense woodlands in rural or wild settings. Nevertheless, in many parts of the country, urban areas have higher densities of tree coverage than can be found in surrounding rural landscapes. Schroeder reviews research that addresses the perceived and actual benefits and costs associated with these urban forests. Graeme Hardie was invited to write a chapter discussing not only environment-behavior research in developing countries but also the appropriateness of environment-behavior research for developing countries. Having worked for many years in developing contexts, he draws on his experience and the research-and-design literature to suggest that environment-behavior issues are not the same in developed and developing contexts, nor are methods appropriate for developed contexts vii

8 viii Preface necessarily equally useful in developing countries. He then analyzes a number of issues, including house design, infrastructure planning, policy formulation, and fieldwork techniques relying mainly on qualitative methods. Sally Shumaker and Willo Pequegnat started writing a chapter on advances in hospital design from a behavioral perspective. It rapidly became apparent, however, that they were addressing the failure of hospital design to address the needs of health care providers, and of nurses in particular. As a result, the chapter took a new direction when nurses were identified as a special user group within the matrix of environment, behavior, and design. Francis Ventre's chapter on research utilization is based on the idea that research utilization involves different epistemological assumptions and different criteria from research itself, namely, those for ensuring efficacy in action and those for substantiating veracity or validity. The basic notion underlying his chapter is that many factors besides systematic research form the basis for design and policy decisions. As he has put it to us, and we agree, research is rarely the single or even the primary basis for environmental decision-making. Rather, research helps to mold the opinion-forming and managerial context within which decisions evolve. Decision-making contexts have been described by social scientists examing the policy-making apparatus of governmental agencies and business firms. These studies have been documented in a variety of places, including the journal Knowledge, various Proceedings of the Environmental Design Research Association, and earlier articles by Ventre. In this tradition, rather than reviewing the implications of environment-behavior research for policy formulation, Ventre reviews the policy environment in which environment-behavior research resides and attempts to have utility. In Volume 1, we suggested that there are three fundamental orientations to the field: a pragmatic, social-problem, or environmental-intervention orientation (represented by sections in each volume on professional applications and research utilization); a range of substantive empirical orientations (represented by sections on place research, user group research, and sociobehavioral research); and various theoretical orientations (the lead-in section of each volume). We have adopted a taxonomy of theories that suggests that different small-t theories of environment-behavior phenomena [like Campbell's (1983) theory of ambient stressors'or Trist, Higgins, Murray, and Pollack's (1963) theory of sociotechnical systems applied to office buildings, and many others], as well as theories of the middle range (Merton,

9 Preface ix 1957) can be conceptualized in terms of their underlying philosophical presuppositions, unit of analysis, and locus of control of behavior, or, said more broadly, in terms of their underlying ontological, epistemological, and methodological presuppositions (Moore, 1987). To continue this analysis, we have again invited leading theoreticians in the field, this time coming from European intellectual traditions, to bring us up to date on the latest advances in two more theoretical directions. In his chapter on ecological conceptualizations, Gerhard Kaminski from Tiibingen discusses the theory deficit in the field and then analyzes Barker's ecobehavioral and Gibson's ecological optic perspectives and highlights their most recent contributions and developments-especially those of the Barker school-along with unresolved issues. He also raises many issues about theory development in the environment-behavior research-and-design field in general and hints at a set of meta theoretical principles for future theory development. Roderick Lawrence from Geneva analyzes structuralist theories, distinguishing between global and analytic structuralism and between the cognitive and Marxist structuralist perspectives, and then shows the application to analysis of the syntax and meaning of the built environment. He makes the structural analysis of space his central concern as seen from the points of view of a range of structural orientations, finally highlighting dialectical structuralism by reference to the analysis of housing in Australia and England. Both of these chapters are complex and demanding; they assume close familiarity with the basic works of Barker and Gibson in the first case and of Levi-Strauss and perhaps Castells in the second case. William Ittelson concludes the section with a discussion of folk and scientific theories and raises provocative questions about their relationship, the role of theory in explaining versus "making contact with" the phenomena of everyday environmental experience, and the possible inappropriateness of verification and falsification as applied to theories of environment, behavior, and design. ' The editors have again shared equally in the organization and content of this volume, and each has been the senior editor for half the chapters. In the preparation, we were assisted by many people. We would like to acknowledge the following people, who helped with reviews of chapter drafts: Linda Groat, Paul Maas, Ryuzo Ohno in Japan, Michael O'Neill, Harvey Rabinowitz, and Amos Rapoport, and our Editorial Advisory Board, who have continued to be a great source of support and advice on the directions for this and future volumes. The Plenum staff have again been a joy to work with, and we appreciate their assistance, especially Eliot Werner, Senior Editor and our chief adviser,

10 x Preface and Jeanette Haglich and Alyce Hager, who have coordinated publicity and marketing. Ervin H. Zube Gary T. Moore REFERENCES Campbell, J. M. (1983). Ambient stressors. Environment and Behavior, 15, Merton, R. F. (1957). Social theory and social structure. New York: Free Press. Moore, G. T. (1987). Environment and behavior research in North America. In D. Stokols & I. Altman (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology. New York: Wiley. Trist, E., Higgins, G., Murray, H., & Pollack, A. (1963). Organizational choice. London: Tavistock.

11 D Contents I ADVANCES IN THEORY 1 The Relevance of Ecologically Oriented Theory Building in Environment and Behavior Research Gerhard Kaminski 3 What Is Meant by Ecological? 4 Problems of Theory Development in the Environment-Behavior Research-and-Design Field 5 Classes and Functions of Theoretical Structures 5 Tracing the Background of Theory Deficit 7 A Descriptive Taxonomy of Domain Components 9 Specific Contributions of the Two Main Ecological Approaches to Conceptualizing the Environment-Behavior Field 10 Barker's Ecobehavioral Approach 11 Gibson's Ecological Approach 17 Further Developments of Barker's Ecobehavioral Perspective and Their Theoretical Implications 20 Modifications of the Conceptual Unit "Behavior Setting" 21 Changes in the Embedding of the Behavior-Setting Unit 22 Development of Classifications and Taxonomic Dimensions for Behavior Settings 23 Consideration of the Individual's Relatedness to Behavior Settings 44 "Psychologization" of the Behavior Setting and Its Occupants 24 Longitudinal Perspectives on Behavior-Setting Changes 26 Empirical Exemplification, Application, and Validation of Behavior-Setting-Related Hypotheses 26 xi

12 xii Implications for Future Research and Application References Contents Structuralist Theories in Environment-Behavior Design Research: Applications for Analyses of People and the Built Environment Roderick J. Lawrence 37 What Is Structuralism? 38 Global Structuralism 39 Analytical Structuralism 41 Structuralist Interpretations 44 Structuralism and Human Cognition: The Contribution of Levi-Strauss 44 Structuralism and Marxism: The Contribution of Castells 48 Applications to Studies of the Built Environment and Human Behavior 51 The Syntax of the Built Environment 51 Architectural Semiotics 57 Redefinition of Structuralist Theory and Methods 61 Toward a Definition of Dialectical Structuralism 61 A Structural, Historical, and Cross-Cultural Analysis of Homes 63 Implication for Future Research and Application 66 References 67 3 Notes on Theory in Environment and Behavior Research 71 William H. Ittelson Folk Theories Scientific Theories Relevance of Scientific Theories Relevance: Success and Utility Contact between Scientific and Folk Theories The Acceptance of Theories Environment-Behavior-Design Theory: What For? References

13 Contents xiii II ADVANCES IN PLACE RESEARCH 4 Environment, Behavior, and Design Research on Urban Forests Herbert W. Schroeder 87 Major Research Topics 89 Benefits and Values Associated with Urban Forests 90 Perception of Urban Forest Environments 93 On-Site Behavior in Urban Forests 98 Destination Choice Behavior 100 Safety, Crime, and Conflict 100 Sources of Variation in Preference and Behavior 103 Application of Research to Management Systems 107 Implications for Future Research and Application 108 References Environment and Behavior Research for Developing 119 Countries Graeme John Hardie The Context of Developing Countries Housing: The Primary Focus of Environment-Behavior Research in Developing Countries House Design Housing Technology and Infrastructure Participation and Housing Housing Policy Fieldwork Techniques Physical Baseline Surveys Structured Interviews Open-Ended In-Depth Interviews Group Discussions Walk-About Verbal Descriptions Simulation and Projective Techniques Participant Observation Implications for Future Research and Application References

14 xiv Contents III ADVANCES IN USER GROUP RESEARCH 6 Hospital Design, Health Providers, and the Delivery 161 of Effective Health Care Sally A. Shumaker and Willo Pequegnat The Sociophysical Environment and Patient Care 162 Implicit Models 162 Limits of Empirical Studies of Hospital Settings 163 The Evolution of Hospital Design 164 Historical Origins of Hospitals 164 Current Factors Influencing Hospital Design 169 The Hospital Design Process 173 Humanizing Hospital Space 178 Choosing the User Group to Optimize Change 179 Patient-Based Design Interventions 179 Health-Provider-Based Design Interventions 180 Hospital Design and Nursing Care 181 The Sociophysical Environment and Nurses 181 Nurses and Patients in Hospital Settings 184 Modeling the Effects of the Sociophysical Environment on the Delivery of Health Care 187 The Interface between Nurses and Specific Settings 188 Helicopter Rescue 188 The Emergency Room 189 Diagnostics 190 The Operating Room 192 The Surgical Intensive-Care Unit 192 The Stepdown Unit or Acute-Care Ward 193 Implications for Future Research and Application 195 References 196 IV ADVANCES IN SOCIOBEHA VI ORAL RESEARCH 7 Environmental Perception and Cognition Tommy Garling and Reginald G. Golledge 203 Theoretical Perspectives Empirical Research in Small-Scale and Medium-Scale Environments

15 Contents xv Perception and Cognitive Representation of Physical- Spatial Properties 208 Perception and Cognitive Representation of Properties of Places 218 Empirical Research in Large-Scale Environments 223 Cognitive Maps of Cities, Spatial Orientation, and Navigation 224 Spatial Preferences, Decisions, and Choices 226 Implications for Future Research and Application 228 References 230 V ADVANCES IN RESEARCH AND DESIGN METHODS 8 Facility Programming Henry Sanoff Diversity of Viewpoints Comparing Programming Models The Seven Models Comparison of the Seven Models Composite Programming Model Linking Evaluation to Programming Linking Data Collection to Programming Data Collection Data Transformation User Participation in the Programming Process Roadblocks to Participation Examples of User Participation Purpose of Participation Implications for Future Research and Application References Advances in Evaluation of the Built Environment Richard Wener Defining Evaluation Advances in Assessing Setting Context Advances in Research Designs Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs

16 xvi Case Studies Extension of Studies across Time and Place Barriers Advances in Research Techniques and Instruments Tailoring the Evaluation to the Needs of the Client Standardized Instruments and Instrument Packages Advances in Data Analysis Use of Theoretical Models Implications for Future Research and Application References Contents VI ADVANCES IN RESEARCH UTILIZATION 10 The Policy Environment for Environment-Behavior 317 Research Francis T. Ventre Policy: A Force Newly Recognized Policies of Governments Direct Policies Indirect Policies Nongovernmental Policies Voluntary Standards Effects on Design Freedom Implications for Future Research and Application References Contents of Previous Volume Index