Human development is deeply embedded in social

Transcription

1 Mejía, S.T., & Hooker, K. (2013). Relatonshp processes wthn the socal convoy: structure, functon, and socal goals. Journals of Gerontology, Seres B: Psychologcal Scences and Socal Scences, 69(3), , do: /geronb/gbt011. Advance Access publcaton Aprl 10, 2013 Relatonshp Processes Wthn the Socal Convoy: Structure, Functon, and Socal Goals Shannon T. Mejía and Karen Hooker School of Socal and Behavoral Health Scences, Oregon State Unversty, Corvalls. Objectves. The structure and functon of older adults socal convoys contrbute to health and well-beng n later lfe, but lttle s known about how they may shape one another. In ths study, we consder relatonshp qualty as a wthnperson process by examnng ts covaraton wth socal goal progress and nvestgate varaton n these relatonshp processes across dfferences n convoy composton. Method. We analyzed data from 99 older adult partcpants (age = years) from the Personal Understandng of Lfe and Socal Experences project, a web-based, 100-day mcrolongtudnal study. Partcpants logged daly socal goal progress and contact satsfacton wth ther 5 closest socal partners. Results. Multlevel analyss found socal goal progress to be hgher on days when ndvduals contact satsfacton was above ther average level. The strength of ths assocaton vared sgnfcantly across partcpants and was stronger among those wth famly-ntensve convoys. Daly contact satsfacton also explaned more varaton n goal progress than a standard measure of relatonshp qualty. Dscusson. Daly measures of contact satsfacton help us understand processes wthn older adults socal convoys and complement standard measures of relatonshp qualty. Fndngs suggest that older adults utlzaton of ther close relatonshps vares n part by structural qualtes of ther convoys. Key Words: Frends and famly Mcrolongtudnal Relatonshp qualty Socal convoy Socal goals Wthnperson process. Human development s deeply embedded n socal experence, and socal networks n older adulthood are the product of a lfetme of lfe course transtons, development, and relatonal hstores (Antonucc, For, Brdtt, & Jackey, 2010; Bleszner, 2006; For, Smth, & Antonucc, 2007). Integratng these perspectves, the socal convoy model (Antonucc et al., 2010; Kahn & Antonucc, 1980) proposes that convoys of close relatonshps develop wth ndvduals over tme n concert wth changng roles and lfe perods. Reflectng dstnct lfe trajectores (Connds, 2010), socal postons (For, Consedne, & Maga, 2008), and socal goal strateges (Lang, Staudnger, & Carstensen, 1998), convoys are notably heterogeneous later n lfe, and some are better equpped to support health and well-beng more than others (For, Antonucc, & Cortna, 2006; Rook, Mavandad, Sorkn, & Zettel, 2007). Notably, by settng and workng toward socal goals, ndvduals partcpate n shapng the structure and functon of ther convoys (Lang et al., 1998) to optmze ther health and well-beng (Rook et al., 2007). In ths study, we examne the nterplay of convoy structure and functon by lnkng older adults socal goal progress to satsfacton wth ther closest socal partners over a 100-day tme perod. We then explore varaton n these processes across dfferences n the convoy s composton of frends and famly. The Socal Convoy Over Tme: Integratng Structure and Functon The socal convoy model (Antonucc et al., 2010; Kahn & Antonucc, 1980) ntegrates socal network structure, relatonshp processes, and change over tme. The convoy s structure s measured n terms of ts sze and composton of relatonshp types, such as close frend or kn. Relatonshp processes comprse the convoy s functon, whch nclude support, companonshp, and also stran. Both structure and functon are not only characterstcs of the person, such as age, gender, temperament, and ablty, but also of the stuaton, such as resources, martal status, socal poston, and postve and negatve lfe experences. Recognzng that the socal convoy s more than just the sum of ts parts, recent research on relatonshps n older adulthood used a person-centered approach to ntegrate the convoy s structure and functon (Antonucc et al., 2010). These methods appled cluster analyss to dentfy common structural and functonal convoy patterns and found four robust typologes: famly-ntensve, dverse, frend-ntensve, and restrctve convoys. A growng body of lterature shows that network typologes account for dfferences n mental health (For et al., 2006), wellbeng (Brdtt & Antonucc, 2007), morale (Ltwn, 2001), lonelness and anxety (Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2011), and 376 The Author Publshed by Oxford Unversty Press on behalf of The Gerontologcal Socety of Amerca. All rghts reserved. For permssons, please e-mal: journals.permssons@oup.com. Receved October 23, 2012; Accepted January 30, 2013 Decson Edtor: Bob Knght, PhD

2 SOCIAL CONVOY RELATIONSHIP PROCESSES 377 mortalty (Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2006). Guded by the concept of the convoy as both the outcome and context of development (Antonucc, Langfahl, & Akyama, 2006) and the sx-foc model of personalty, whch ntegrates how process and structure may shape one another over tme (Hooker & McAdams, 2003), we buld on ths mportant research by examnng convoy functon as wthn-person processes that may vary across dfferences n convoy structure. Lnkng Convoy Functon to Socal Goal Processes Convoys have many functons, and n ths study, we focus on contact satsfacton wth the closest socal partners. Relatonshps are complex, especally n older adulthood (Fngerman, Hay, & Brdtt, 2004). Unlke measures of socal support, whch can at tmes be unwanted or perceved as burdensome or demeanng (Rafael, Cranford, Green, Shrout, & Bolger, 2008), contact satsfacton represents an nteracton wth a close socal partner that satsfes one s needs at a gven moment (Rook, 1987). Therefore, although support s a process by whch socal partners may nfluence health and well-beng, measures of contact satsfacton specfy the qualty of socal nteractons. In the face of relatonshp complextes, older adults set and work toward socal goals n an effort to optmze ther socal resources to meet ther needs (Lang et al., 1998; Rook et al., 2007). Socal goals represent ntentonal efforts to manage the qualty of relatonshps and are known to dffer across lfe perods. In older adulthood, as future tme perspectve decreases, socal goals shft to emphasze emotonal closeness (Carstensen, Isaacowtz, & Charles, 1999). Socal goal progress s also lnked to daly socal experences of support and hndrance (Mejía & Hooker, under revew). In ths study, to explore how convoy structure may nteract wth convoy functon, we examne the lnk between older adults daly varaton n socal goal progress and contact satsfacton wth ther fve closest socal partners, and the extent to whch ths lnk vares across dfferences n convoy structure. Mcrolongtudnal Study of Relatonshp Qualty When relatonshp qualty s examned longtudnally, measurements are generally separated by extended tme ntervals. Longtudnal research suggests that relatonshp qualty vares wthn ndvduals over tme (Brdtt, Jackey, & Antonucc, 2009), and that trajectores of relatonshp qualty dffer by relatonshp type such as spouse, frend, or acquantance (Shaw, Krause, Lang, & Bennett, 2007). What remans unexamned s how the process of relatonshp qualty may ebb and flow over a tmescale that developmentalsts call mcrotme (Ram & Gerstorf, 2009), whch we undertake by examnng daly measures of contact satsfacton wth the closest socal partners. Ths approach offers several advantages. Frst, daly measures of contact satsfacton are less senstve to recall bas, whch s known to favor postve apprasals among older adults (Charles & Carstensen, 2008). Second, daly measures of contact satsfacton allow the examnaton of wthn-person processes (Hooker, Hoppmann, & Segler, 2010), such as the extent to whch contact satsfacton on a gven day may be lnked to socal goal progress on that day. Thrd, daly measurements hghlght the strength of assocaton between daly contact satsfacton and goal progress, as well as the varaton of ths assocaton across ndvduals. Drawng from strateges used n the study of daly stress reactvty (e.g., Bolger & Zuckerman, 1995), we name ths lnk senstvty to contact satsfacton. Goal progress among those wth hgher senstvty s more tghtly coupled to varaton n contact satsfacton, whereas goal progress and contact satsfacton vary more ndependently among those wth lower senstvty. Fnally, the daly measurement of relatonshp qualty allows us to explan varaton n contact satsfacton senstvty across ndvduals. Convoy Structure An mportant varaton n convoy composton s the proporton of frend and famly relatonshps (Bleszner, 2006; For et al., 2006). Although famly roles and responsbltes are often socally defned, frendshps are generally age peers and selected by choce (Connds, 2010). Frendshps, lke kn relatons, can also be conflcted. Although famly relatonshps are ted to flal oblgatons, frendshps are more strongly governed by the recprocty norm and may also requre tme and resources to mantan (Lang, Wagner, & Neyer, 2009). Convoy composton has yet to be examned n relaton to socal goal progress, but we expect that frendshps are more supportve of socal goal progress for two reasons. Frst, frendntensve convoys reflect a lfe trajectores that requre extendng beyond mmedate kn tes (Connds, 2010). Second, frendshps often provde stronger emotonal support than famly members (Bleszner, 2006; Walen & Lachman, 2000), whch may be more assstve to goal pursut, and also predct dfferences n senstvty to contact satsfacton. Age, gender, and martal status all contrbute to convoy structure and may also nfluence relatonshp processes wthn the convoy. The socal convoy generally shrnks n sze as ndvduals age (Lang et al., 1998), and socal exchanges shft from support gvng to support recevng (Shaw et al., 2007). The meanng and functon of relatonshps n older adulthood are also known to vary by gender. Men generally have smaller networks wth fewer close relatonshps than women and are more lkely to establsh closeness through shared actvtes rather than emotonal exchanges (Connds, 2010). Martal status s related to support and relatonshp complextes such as stran and conflct (e.g., Walen & Lachman, 2000).

3 378 MEJÍA AND HOOKER The Current Study By workng toward socal goals, ndvduals partcpate n shapng ther socal convoys to meet ther needs across ther lfe spans (Lang et al., 1998; Rook et al., 2007). Socal convoys are characterzed by ther structure (e.g., composton of frends and famly) and functon (e.g., relatonshp qualty), whch are specfc to characterstcs of the person and the context (Antonucc et al., 2010; Kahn & Antonucc, 1980). Some convoys are better optmzed to ft ndvduals needs than others, and patterns of convoy structure and functon have been assocated wth dfferences n health and well-beng n older adulthood (For et al., 2006; Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2006, 2011). These studes have been nvaluable n buldng our knowledge of socal relatonshps. However, they cannot speak to how convoy functon s lnked to daly experences wthn the ndvdual, the extent to whch the salence of convoy functon may vary across ndvduals, or the potental for convoy structure to shape convoy functon. To address these gaps n the lterature, we examne relatonshp qualty, as a wthn-person process, whch we measure as daly contact satsfacton wth close socal partners. Our study has three ams. Our frst am s to understand how convoy structure and functon contrbute to wthn- and between-person varaton n socal goal progress. We address ths am wth three research questons: (a) Does the level of progress toward a socal goal vary across dfferences n the proporton of frend and famly relatonshps n a convoy? Because frend-focused convoys reflect lfe trajectores that requre extendng beyond kn tes (Bleszner, 2006), we expect that those wth a hgher proporton of frendshps wll report hgher goal progress. (b) Is day-to-day varaton n socal goal progress lnked to experences of contact satsfacton on that day? Gven the lnk between relatonshp qualty and well-beng (Brdtt & Antonucc, 2007; Brdtt et al., 2009), we expect that goal progress wll be hgher on days when contact satsfacton s above the ndvdual s average. (c) Does the strength of ths assocaton (whch we term senstvty) vary across ndvduals? Followng evdence from research on support and hndrance processes (e.g., Mejía & Hooker, under revew), we expect ndvduals to vary n the extent to whch ther goal progress s senstve to varaton n contact satsfacton. Our second am was to examne varaton n convoy functon across dfferences n convoy structure. Thus, a fourth research queston s: Does senstvty to contact satsfacton vary across dfferences n the proporton of frends and famly n the convoy? Followng theory that knshp tes foster closeness regulaton (Lang et al., 2009), we expect that goal progress among those wth a hgher proporton of famly members wll be more senstve to varaton n contact satsfacton. And fnally, we am to address an mportant methodologcal ssue. Our ffth research queston s: Does the aggregate of daly contact satsfacton better explan varaton n overall socal goal progress than a standard measure of relatonshp qualty? We expect that daly measurements of contact satsfacton wll explan more varaton n socal goal progress than a standard measure of relatonshp qualty. Method Study Desgn Ths research used data from the ntal and daly phases of the Personal Understandng of Lfe and Socal Experences (PULSE) project. The PULSE project was conducted completely va the Internet on a custom web applcaton that was desgned and bult by the research team. The PULSE project conssted of an ntal survey, whch was followed by daly surveys over a 100-day tme perod. Its wthn-person desgn (Nesselroade, 1990) facltated the nvestgaton of wthn-person self-regulatory processes and between-person dfferences n those processes. The 100-day temporal frame was chosen to allow enough tme for goal attanment and to capture a wde range of varaton n behavoral patterns. The PULSE study was also desgned to examne dfferences n temporal measurement strateges (e.g., how many observatons are necessary to relably capture ntra-ndvdual varaton; Hooker, Mejía, Pham, Metoyer, & Ram, 2012). A quarter of the sample was therefore randomly assgned to a measurement-burst group. Rather than completng 100 consecutve surveys, the burst group completed four equally spaced 7-day measurement bursts (total observatons = 28) durng the 100-day study perod. There were no sgnfcant dfferences n terms of demographcs, convoy sze, or the proporton of frends and famly between the two measurement groups; T 2 =.05, F(1,2) =.76, ns. Data were collected between June and October of Partcpants and Procedure PULSE partcpants were recruted by e-mal from an exstng human subjects regstry of ndvduals aged 50 and older. One hundred and fve older adults (M age = 63.19, SD = 7.80, range = 52 88) were ntally recruted for the project. Of those recruted, 88% were women, 97% were Whte, 73% were marred or partnered, and 47% were retred. Fve partcpants dropped out of the study, and one partcpant was removed for completng only fve sessons. The remanng 99 partcpants had a medan completon rate of 92% (nterquartle range =.20). Those who dropped out were not sgnfcantly dfferent from partcpants n terms of age, educaton, martal status, proporton of frends, and relatonshp qualty; F(6,97) =.92, ns. The PULSE study had two phases: (a) an ntal survey and (b) a seres of daly surveys. In the ntal survey, partcpants provded demographc and psychosocal nformaton, a meanngful socal goal, and nformaton about ther socal convoys. In the daly survey, whch we desgned to be completed wthn fve mnutes, partcpants documented

4 SOCIAL CONVOY RELATIONSHIP PROCESSES 379 ther daly goal progress and daly socal experences. Partcpants accessed ther daly surveys by followng a lnk that was e-maled to them each mornng, whch then expred at 2:00 a.m. the followng day. Partcpants were nstructed n the daly e-mal to complete ther PULSE sesson that evenng. Analyss of tme-stamped data showed that 83% of sessons were completed after 4:00 p.m. Intal Survey Measures Meanngful socal goal. Partcpants created a meanngful socal goal by respondng to the followng prompt: Choose one goal that s mportant to you n the realm of socal relatons (famly and/or frends) that you expect to be workng on over the next 4 months. Partcpants were then asked to descrbe ths goal n as much detal as possble n a text feld and then answer Why s t mportant to you? n a second text feld. Partcpants also wrote a short statement to remnd them of ther goal durng the study, and these words were programmed to automatcally populate ther daly surveys. Socal convoy composton. Partcpants socal convoys were measured usng the herarchcal mappng technque (Antonucc, 1986). Instructons on the web-based form asked partcpants to magne that the pctured dagram of three concentrc crcles represented ther socal partners who are currently sgnfcant n ther lves. Partcpants were nstructed to place n the order of closeness socal partners they could not lve wthout n the nnermost crcle, those wth whom they felt close to n the mddle crcle, and those wth whom they felt not qute that close n the outermost crcle. Partcpants specfed ther relatonshp to each person n a text box, and these relatonshps were coded as ether famly or frend. Spouses, lfe partners, sgnfcant others, sblngs, sblngs-n-law, chldren, chldren-n-law, and grandchldren were coded as famly. Frends, neghbors, coworkers, and godchldren were coded as frends. Gven ther ncluson n the convoy dagram, we assumed that these relatonshps were meanngful n the partcpants lves. To emphasze convoy composton over convoy sze, we calculated the percentage of frends n the socal convoy. Relatonshp qualty. Our standard measure of relatonshp qualty was the Socal Support Apprasal Scale (Vaux et al., 1986). Ths 23-tem scale measures feelngs of love, support, and nvolvement n the socal network and has been shown to have good valdty n older populatons. The scale s nter-tem relablty n ths sample was hgh (Cronbach s α =.94). nstructons that partcpants were to respond based on experences for that day. Partcpants responded by usng ther mouse to move a handle along a slder. To encourage ndependent assessment of each day, the scales underlyng numbers were not vsble to partcpants (Brose & Ram, 2012) but were recorded n the database. Daly socal goal progress. Goal progress was measured daly on a contnuous sldng scale between 0 (no progress) and 100 (great progress). The daly goal prompt was populated by the partcpants specfc socal goals (n talcs). An example prompt s as follows: Rate your progress toward your goal of [mprove daughter-n-law relatonshp]. Daly contact satsfacton. Our measure of contact satsfacton was adapted from Rook (1987) and was populated wth the names of the fve closest socal partners lsted n the socal convoy measure. For partcpants wth an nner crcle smaller than fve (61%), the daly questonnare ncluded socal partners from the mddle crcle. Partcpants responded to the daly prompt, Please ndcate whom you nteracted wth today, by checkng a box next to the socal partners they had nteracted wth. Partcpants then responded to the prompt, how satsfed were you wth ths nteracton? by sldng the handle across the scale between 0 (not satsfed) and 100 (very satsfed). Daly contact satsfacton was calculated as the average contact satsfacton across socal partners nteracted wth on that day. To allow the model to represent goal progress on days wth and wthout nteractons wth close socal partners, days where none of the lsted socal partners were contacted were coded as zero. Covarates To focus on contact satsfacton and convoy composton, we controlled for mportant aspects of convoy functon and structure. A functonal control was the partcpants daly experences of support toward ther socal goals, whch was measured wth the prompt: Dd you receve any practcal or emotonal assstance toward your socal goal today? (adapted from Rafael et al., 2008). Support was analyzed n depth n our prevous work (Mejía & Hooker, under revew). Our structural controls ncluded martal status (1 = marred or partnered), age, and gender (1 = female), whch are known to account for varaton n both convoy structure and functon (Walen & Lachman, 2000). We also ncluded a measurement group dummy varable (Daly = 1; Burst = 0) to control for dfferences n exposure to the daly survey (28 days vs 100 days). Daly Measures Daly measures of socal goal progress and contact satsfacton were completed on the daly survey and ncluded Analytc Strategy Data were analyzed usng a seres of multlevel random coeffcent models, whch accommodated the nestng of

5 380 MEJÍA AND HOOKER repeated measurements wthn partcpants, and allowed the assocaton between daly contact satsfacton and goal progress to vary across ndvduals. To examne the contrbuton of convoy structure and functon to socal goal progress, we consdered both wthn-person (Level 1) and between-person (Level 2) models. Level 1 varables were tme varant, represented convoy functon, and ncluded wthn-person relatonshp processes of contact satsfacton and support. Relatonshp processes were group centered (subtractng the ndvdual s mean from each observaton). Ths removes ndvdual dfferences and examnng varaton n goal progress as relatonshp processes vary above or below the person s mean. When tme-varyng covarates are group centered, the ntercept represents goal progress on an average day for that person. The Level 1 model was estmated as follows n Equaton 1: Socal Goal t =β 0 +β 1(Day t ) +β2 (SatsfactonWPt ) (1) +β3 (SupportWP t ) + e t Level 2 varables were measured once and nclude ndvdual characterstcs of convoy composton, age, gender, martal status, measurement group, and person-means of daly contact satsfacton and support. These varables were used to predct between-person dfferences n both the level of socal goal progress and also senstvty to varaton n relatonshp processes. To facltate nterpretaton of the ntercept and cross-level nteractons, all Level 2 varables were grand-mean centered. Cross-level nteractons were used to examne varaton n relatonshp processes across convoy structure. Between-person varaton n the ntercept (Equaton 2) and contact satsfacton coeffcent (Equaton 3) were modeled as follows: β = γ +γ (Age ) +γ (Gender) +γ (Group ) γ 04 (SatsfactonBP) +γ (SupportBP) +γ (Martal ) +γ (%Frends ) + u (2) β 2 = γ 20 +γ 21(SatsfactonBP) +γ 22 (Martal ) (3) +γ (%Frends ) + u 2 23 Models were constructed sequentally, begnnng wth an uncondtonal model, and assessed n terms of mproved model ft (Δ 2*LL) and the random estmates proportonal reducton n varance ( R = ( σ ub + σ um ) σ ub ; Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002). Data were rendered weakly statonary by assessng model resduals and varance across tme (Brose & Ram, 2012). A lnear growth parameter suffcently detrended the data. The autocorrelaton functon showed that an AR(2) process suffcently absorbed the correlaton of resduals. The models were constructed usng the xtmxed command n STATA. Results A correlaton matrx and summary statstcs of the partcpants socal convoy, demographcs, and mean convoy functons are presented n Table 1. Table 2 dsplays the ntra-ndvdual means, standard devatons, and correlatons of relatonshp processes across dfferences n convoy composton. In prelmnary analyss, we modeled socal goal progress, contact satsfacton, and support uncondtonally to calculate ther proporton of wthn-person varance (1 ntraclass correlaton): goal progress =.50; contact satsfacton =.61; support =.45. Contact satsfacton vared more wthn ndvduals than t dd between ndvduals. Convoy Structure and Socal Goal Progress To address our frst am, we examned drect effects of convoy structure and functon on socal goal progress. Begnnng wth our frst research queston, we modeled the proporton of frends and famly to predct between-person dfferences n the level of goal progress across the 100-day study, controllng for martal status, tme, age, gender, and measurement group. The results are presented n Model 1 on Table 3. Consstent wth our expectatons, the proporton of frends n the convoy was assocated wth the level of goal progress Table 1. Correlaton Matrx of Descrptve Varables Descrbng Convoy Structure and Functon From Cross-Sectonal and Daly Surveys Over 100 Days Convoy structure 1. No. of convoy 2. %Frends %Close.26**.35*** 4. Partnered.12.25**.15 Convoy functon (mean over 100 days) 5. Contact *** 6. Satsfacton ***.51*** 7. Support ** 8. Socal goal.09.28** ***.69*** Convoy functon (ntal survey) 9. Relatonshp qualty **.15.36***.24**.21* Note. *p <.05. **p <.01. ***p <.001.

6 SOCIAL CONVOY RELATIONSHIP PROCESSES 381 Table 2. Convoy Characterstcs, Intra-Indvdual Means, Standard Devatons, and Correlatons of Convoy Functon Famly ntensve Dverse Frend ntensve Total N = 24 N = 34 N = 41 N = 99 M SD M SD M SD M SD Convoy characterstcs Convoy sze Proporton close* Marred/partnered (%) Intra-ndvdual means Contact Contact satsfacton Support Socal goal progress* Intra-ndvdual SD Contact* Contact satsfacton Support Socal goal progress Intra-ndvdual correlatons r satsfacton, goal progress r goal progress, support r satsfacton, support * Notes. Intra-ndvdual correlatons are par-wse correlatons of tme-varyng covarates for each ndvdual. Famly ntensve < 35 dverse < 57 frend ntensve (Ltwn, 2001). Multvarate analyss of varance dentfed between-group dfference, *p <.05. over the 100-day study perod (estmate =.28, SE = 0.09, p =.002). Those wth a hgher proporton of frends n ther networks reported hgher goal progress. Ths model explaned 13% of the between-person varaton n goal progress. Daly Contact Satsfacton and Socal Goal Progress We contnued by nvestgatng the lnk between daly socal goal progress and contact satsfacton on that day. The results from ths analyss are presented n Model 2 on Table 3. Addressng our second research queston, socal goal progress was hgher on days when ndvduals contact satsfacton wth ther close socal partners was above the ndvdual s average (estmate =.10, SE = 0.02, p <.001). Ths effect was ndependent of experences of support on that day (estmate =.48, SE = 0.03, p <.001). To answer our thrd research queston, we evaluated the between-person error component for the contact satsfacton coeffcent. Consstent wth our expectatons, senstvty to contact satsfacton vared sgnfcantly across partcpants (χ 2 (3) = 43.23, p <.001). The contact satsfacton coeffcent vared across ndvduals by a SD of 0.11 (SE = 0.02). Therefore, a plausble range (95% CI) of the contact satsfacton coeffcent n ths sample falls between 0.11 and 0.32 (see Fgure 1). Contact satsfacton s lnked to varaton n socal goal progress, ndependent of varaton n support. The strength of ths senstvty, however, vares sgnfcantly across ndvduals. Convoy Structure and Functon To address our second am, we added cross-level nteractons to examne the extent to whch senstvty to contact satsfacton vared across the proporton of frends n the convoy and martal status. We present the results from ths analyss n Model 3 on Table 3. Includng these moderators sgnfcantly mproved model ft (χ 2 (4) = 17.72, p <.01). Consstent wth our expectatons, as shown n Fgure 2, goal progress among those wth a hgher proporton of famly members was more senstve to varaton n contact satsfacton (estmate =.002, SE = 0.001, p =.003). Senstvty to contact satsfacton was also hgher among those who were marred or partnered (estmate =.08, SE = 0.03, p =.01). Model 3 predcts that on a day of low ( 1 SD) contact satsfacton, goal progress would be among ndvduals wth famly-ntensve convoys (%frends < 35) and among ndvduals wth frendntensve convoys (%frends > 57). In other words, socal goal progress was more ndependent of contact satsfacton among those wth a frend-ntensve convoy. The proporton of frends and famly n the convoy explaned 23% of the varaton n senstvty to contact satsfacton. The fnal model, where both martal status and the composton of frends and famly moderated convoy functon, accounted for 47% of the between-person varaton n senstvty to contact satsfacton. Sngle Versus Daly Measurements of Relatonshp Qualty To address our fnal am, we examned whether ntal or daly measures of relatonshp qualty better explaned varaton n the level of socal goal progress. We began by modelng varaton n socal goal progress wth a standard measure of relatonshp qualty, controllng for tme, age, gender, and measurement group. Consstent wth

7 382 MEJÍA AND HOOKER Table 3. Multlevel Random Coeffcent Model of Convoy Structure and Functon on Daly Socal Goal Progress Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) Fxed effects Intercept 63.19*** (1.91) 63.02*** (1.38) 63.03*** (1.38) Day 0.11*** (0.02) 0.06*** (0.01) 0.06*** (0.01) Age 0.15 (0.26) 0.13 (0.14) 0.13 (0.14) Gender 6.35 (5.92) 0.98 (3.35) 0.93 (3.33) Group 5.25 (4.61) 2.68 (2.84) 3.00 (2.70) Martal status 5.48 (4.71) 1.47 (2.82) 0.50 (3.43) %Frends 0.28** (0.09) 0.18*** (0.05) 0.19** (0.06) Satsfacton WP 0.10*** (0.02) 0.11*** (0.02) Satsfacton BP 0.19** (0.07) 0.18** (0.07) Satsfacton WP BP 0.002* (0.001) (0.001) Support WP 0.48*** (0.03) 0.48*** (0.03) Support BP 0.54*** (0.06) 0.53*** (0.05) Support WP BP (0.001) (0.001) Martal Satsfacton 0.08** (0.03) Martal Support 0.04 (0.06) %Frends Satsfacton 0.002** (0.001) %Frends Support (0.001) Random effects (SD) Intercept (1.36) (1.00) (0.98) Day 0.14 (0.02) 0.11 (0.01) 0.11 (0.01) Satsfacton 0.11 (0.02) 0.08 (0.02) Support 0.26 (0.02) 0.26 (0.02) Resdual (0.18) (0.14) (0.14) Φ 1.22 (.01).22 (.01).22 (.01) Φ 2.06 (.01).06 (.01).06 (.01) R 2 wthn R 2 between R 2 satsfacton.47 2*LL 61, , , Δ 2*LL χ 2 (12) = 3,638.72*** χ 2 (4) = 17.72** Notes. BP = between-person; WP = wthn-person. Random coeffcents and mproved model ft tested usng Δ 2*LL. All random effects mproved model ft. Tme varyng covarates are group centered. Tme nvarant covarates are grand-mean centered. Estmates are unstandardzed. *p.05. **p.01. ***p.001. Fgure 1. Between-person varablty n contact satsfacton senstvty. Lght grey lnes represent emprcal Bayes predctons of partcpant-specfc regresson lnes of daly contact satsfacton on daly socal goal progress. The sold lne represents the fxed effect of daly contact satsfacton on daly socal goal progress. Dashed lnes represent the lower and upper dstrbutons of senstvty to contact satsfacton n ths sample.

8 SOCIAL CONVOY RELATIONSHIP PROCESSES 383 Fgure 2. Contact satsfacton senstvty across dfferences n socal convoy composton of frends and famly. Dscrete categores are for llustraton only. Multlevel analyss was conducted usng a contnuous measure of proporton of frends and famly n the socal convoy. Famly ntensve < 35 dverse < 57 frend ntensve (Ltwn, 2001). expectatons from prevous research, the standard measure of relatonshp qualty was sgnfcantly related to goal progress across the 100-day study (estmate =.33, SE = 0.16, p =.04) and explaned 4% of the between-person varaton n goal progress. Addng between-person varaton n daly contact satsfacton sgnfcantly mproved model ft (χ 2 (1) = 8.71 p <.01), was sgnfcantly assocated wth dfferences n goal progress (estmate =.35, SE = 0.12, p =.002), rendered the standard measure of relatonshp qualty nonsgnfcant (estmate =.15, SE = 0.16, ns), and explaned an addtonal 9% of the between-person varaton n socal goal progress. In other words, between-person dfferences n daly contact satsfacton explaned more varaton n socal goal progress than a standard relatonshp qualty measure. Dscusson Workng toward socal goals s a process by whch older adults may optmze ther relatonshps to beneft ther health and well-beng. In ths study, we bult on a rch body of work that strves to ntegrate convoy structure and functon (e.g., Brdtt & Antonucc, 2007; For et al., 2006; Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2006, 2011) by ntroducng a wthn-person measure of relatonshp qualty wth ndvdual s closest socal partners over a 100-day tme perod. We demonstrated that daly measures of contact satsfacton allow for exploraton nto the dynamcs of how convoy structure may nfluence convoy functon and also explan more varaton n socal goal progress than a standard measure of relatonshp qualty. Between-Person Varaton n Senstvty to Contact Satsfacton Measurng contact satsfacton daly allowed us to examne ts day-to-day covaraton wth socal goal progress. We found that, n general, ndvduals made more goal progress on days when contact satsfacton wth ther closest socal partners was hgher than ther average. Perceved relatonshp qualty has long been acknowledged to be as mportant as receved support (cf. Bleszner, 2006). By measurng relatonshp qualty ntensvely over 100 days, we have learned that ts mportance carres over to the daly experence and n ths sample actually vares more wthn ndvduals than t does between ndvduals. Our fndngs justfy further nvestgaton nto contact satsfacton as a wthn-person relatonshp process, whch would allow the opportunty to further explore ts wthn- as well as between-person varaton. Antonucc and colleagues (2010) have proposed that the convoy develops parallel to changes n characterstcs of the person and stuaton. Senstvty to contact satsfacton may smlarly vary across person and stuaton contexts. The daly measure of contact satsfacton also allowed us to focus on the lnk between goal progress and contact satsfacton, and whether senstvty to varaton n contact satsfacton s consstent or vares across ndvduals. We found that ndvduals vared consderably n ther senstvty to contact satsfacton. Therefore, the lnk between satsfyng socal contact and varaton n goal progress should not necessarly be generalzed across ndvduals, even n a relatvely homogenous sample. Instead, senstvty to contact satsfacton may tself be a meanngful outcome of nterest (Ram & Gerstorf, 2009).

9 384 MEJÍA AND HOOKER Convoy Structure Moderates Convoy Functon In ths study, we took a frst step toward understandng the source of between-person varaton n older adults senstvty to contact satsfacton by explorng dfferences n ther convoys composton of frend and famly relatonshps and martal status. We found that those wth famly-ntensve convoys were more senstve to varaton n contact satsfacton than those wth frend-ntensve convoys. Indvdual varaton n senstvty to contact satsfacton s an mportant avenue for future research. For example, relatonshp qualty has been found to vary greatly wthn famles across generatons (Brdtt, Tghe, Fngerman, & Zart, 2012); however, varaton n senstvty to relatonshp qualty remans unexplored but may also vary consderably across generatons or wthn kn networks. By demonstratng that convoy structure may nfluence convoy functon, our work extends an mportant body of research amed at ntegratng convoy functon and structure (Brdtt & Antonucc, 2007; For et al., 2006; Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2011). Famly relatonshps are both endurng and flled wth complex emotons (Fngerman et al., 2004), and when the closest convoy members are kn, satsfyng contact may be necessary to work through ambvalent feelngs and crcumstances (Lang et al., 2009), whch may facltate becomng closer n the face of negatve nteractons (Fung, Yeung, L, & Lang, 2009). However, ncreased senstvty to contact satsfacton may also suggest a process by whch kn-ntensve convoys may stran well-beng (e.g., Brdtt et al., 2009; Fngerman et al., 2004; Ltwn & Shovtz- Ezra, 2011). In famly ntensve convoys, f progress toward a socal goal s especally senstve to varaton n satsfacton wth close famly members, t may be more dffcult to expand the network to optmze socal resources. Longtudnal research s needed to tease out these processes (Nesselroade, 1990; Ram & Gerstorf, 2009). Those who were marred or partnered were also more senstve to varaton n contact satsfacton. In ths study, we consdered partnered status as an aspect of convoy structure (Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2011) and were therefore not able to tease out the nuances of how spouses may coregulate ther socal goals (Hoppmann & Gerstorf, n press). However, as a structural component of the socal convoy, martal status was assocated wth hgher senstvty to contact satsfacton above and beyond the proporton of frends and famly n the convoy. Spousal relatonshps are unque compared wth other relatonshps and also vary n qualty (Brdtt & Antonucc, 2007). Therefore, our fndngs warrant further nvestgaton nto senstvty to contact satsfacton wth spouses, and condtons under whch ths senstvty may vary. Daly Measures of Relatonshp Qualty In ths study, we found mean contact satsfacton over the 100-day study to explan more varaton n socal goal progress than a standard relatonshp qualty measure. Our fndngs suggest that a daly measure of relatonshp qualty s complementary to a standard measure and provdes a dstnct analytc lens. The standard relatonshp qualty measure taps nto a global apprasal of close relatonshps. Older adults are known to remember nterpersonal events more postvely than ther younger counterparts (Brdtt & Fngerman, 2003), and ths postvty effect may be more present n global measures of relatonshp qualty. Daly measures, on the other hand, access a more short-term apprasal and provde nsght to more proxmate functonal processes wthn the socal convoy, whch were notable n ther day-to-day varablty. An mportant conceptual mplcaton of ths study s that a sngle measurement of relatonshp qualty may be ndrectly lnked to goal progress through daly experences of contact satsfacton. In ths study, global perceptons of relatonshp qualty were assocated but not synonymous wth experences of contact satsfacton over a 100-day tme perod (the varables share 12% of the varance). Therefore, our fndngs suggest that the beneft of relatonshp qualty s contngent on the experence of satsfyng socal contact. An mportant ssue for future research s how global and daly perceptons are related over extended tmescales. For example, low levels of contact satsfacton over an extended tmeframe may predct a declne n global perceptons of relatonshp qualty. Alternatvely, global perceptons of relatonshp qualty may be a trat-lke characterstc, whch although relatvely stable, s shaped through relatonshp processes (Hooker & McAdams, 2003). Lmtatons and Future Drectons Ths study collected and examned rch data wthn a sample of relatvely healthy older adults over an extended perod of tme. Nevertheless, because convoys patterns are known to vary by socoeconomc status and race (For et al., 2008) and the meanng of relatonshps s known to dffer by socal poston (cf. Bleszner, 2006), the generalzablty of our fndngs s constraned by our sample. We also acknowledge that although these data were collected on a daly bass, a causal drecton between contact satsfacton and goal progress cannot be establshed. The varablty found n ths relatvely homogenous sample of older adults warrants further research nto the extent to whch senstvty to contact satsfacton vares across characterstcs of the stuaton and person both wthn and between ndvduals. Begnnng wth varaton between ndvduals, dfferences n contact senstvty should be examned across cultures, socoeconomc status, and cohorts. Based on ths research and prevous work (Antonucc, Akyama, & Takahash, 2004; Antonucc et al., 2006), we would predct that senstvty would be hgher among those wth more kn-ntensve convoys. We also acknowledge that the meanng of frendshp and knshp roles vares across

10 SOCIAL CONVOY RELATIONSHIP PROCESSES 385 cultures. Although frend, famly, and dverse convoy patterns have been dentfed across cultures (For et al., 2006; Ltwn & Shovtz-Ezra, 2006), senstvty to varaton n relatonshp processes may vary across these contexts. We also expect that senstvty would vary wthn ndvduals over tme. Smlar to how exchange perspectves appear to shft across the adult lfe span (Davey & Norrs, 1998), senstvty may vary across characterstcs of the ndvdual, stuaton, and over tme. Indvduals may be most senstve at young and old ages, when support s receved more than t s gven (Antonucc et al., 2004; Shaw et al., 2007). Smlarly, senstvty may vary n response to changes n the envronment by decreasng when close socal partners are not avalable or ncreasng followng a transton. Longtudnal research wth mcrolongtudnal bursts would place senstvty n the context of change over tme and dstal outcomes (Ram & Gerstorf, 2009). Conclusons Well-beng n older adulthood hnges on the ablty to mantan supportve and meanngful relatonshps (For et al., 2006; Lang et al., 1998; Walen & Lachman, 2000). In ths study, we demonstrate how the ntensve measure of relatonshp qualty over 100 days provdes a new lens to deepen our understandng of close socal partners engagement n older adults self-regulatory processes. We showed that daly measures of contact satsfacton brng focus to the lnk between contact satsfacton and goal progress, whch we found to vary across ndvduals, and carry more explanatory power than a standard measure of relatonshp qualty. Older adults senstvty to convoy functon may provde a new vew nto the socal convoy. Not only are convoys heterogeneous n terms of ther functon and structure but also n the extent to whch a convoy functon such as contact satsfacton s lnked to an outcome such as socal goal progress. Ths work contrbutes to our understandng of how convoy structure may nfluence ts functon and sets the groundwork for further nvestgaton nto senstvty to contact satsfacton and ts correlates. Fundng Ths research was supported by a grant from the Center for Healthy Agng Research at Oregon State Unversty awarded to K. Hooker and by a Natonal Scence Foundaton Integratve Graduate Research and Educaton Traneeshp (IGERT) Grant (DGE ). Ths research s based on the frst author s master s thess submtted to Oregon State Unversty. Acknowledgments The authors thank Ron Metoyer, Tuan Pham, and Soyoung Choun for ther help wth the web-based data collecton as well as the partcpants for ther effort and dedcaton durng the 100-day study. Correspondence Correspondence should be addressed to Shannon T. Mejía, MS, Human Development and Famly Scences, School of Socal and Behavoral Health Scences, Oregon State Unversty, 410 Waldo Hall, Corvalls, OR E-mal: lundbers@ond.orst.edu. References Antonucc, T. C. (1986). 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