Biological & Psychological Theories of Crime Podcast

Transcription

1 Biological & Psychological Theories of Crime Podcast Note: (original content source labels podcast as Unit 3. This Podcast corresponds to content in Lesson 6 and 8 in Unit 2) Unit 2 Unit Summary In this unit, we will consider biological and psychological explanations for crime. In doing so, we will look at phrenology and somatotyping. We will consider how pollution, hormones, and what we eat may have an effect on whether an individual commits a crime. We will discuss some of the psychological explanations of crime, such as psychoanalytic theory, modeling theory, and self-control theory. Finally, we will examine the legal definition of insanity and the use of psychological profiling in solving crimes. What will you learn in this unit? After studying this unit you will be able to: 1. Learn about early biological explanations of crime, such as phrenology. 2. Discuss chemical and hormonal theories of crime. 3. Look at psychoanalytic theories of crime. 4. Examine modeling and self-control theories. 5. Investigate the legal definitions of insanity and how psychological profiling is used to solve crimes. Questions to think about: 1. What are constitutional theories? How did early scholars explain the relationships between the physical body and crime? 2. How might factors like hormones, chemicals, and the weather influence criminal behavior? 3. What is Freud's psychoanalytic theory? How does it explain crime? 4. What are the legal rules for an insanity defense? 5. How is psychological profiling used in solving crimes? Are some people born to be criminals? Do some of us have faulty genes or bad heredity that causes us to commit crime? Soon we may know the answer to these questions. The Human Genome Project, which mapped over twenty thousand genes in our DNA, was completed in Today scholars are using the data collected for a variety of research projects, including those examining possible biological reasons for crime. Scholars at the University of Texas Health Science Center, for example, have found a pleasure-seeking gene that they believe may be related to crime. The DRD2 A1 allele appears to help control dopamine, which gives a sense of well-being in the brain. When this gene is defective, however, it leads to less dopamine, which may lead people to drugs, alcohol, or other activities that may produce a dopamine-like effect. Projects like the human genome project may help us better understand why people commit crimes. For thousands of years, people have been trying to understand what makes some people commit crimes, like murder or rape, while others don't. Some crimes make more sense to us than others, such as a poor person robbing a wealthy home, versus a mother who kills her own children. In this unit, we will focus on biological and psychological explanations for crime and discuss some of the possible reasons why people commit crimes. Even those that seem unthinkable to most people. Biological Theories

2 Biological theories have been slow to enter the field of criminology. One reason for this is that criminology comes out of the social sciences, particularly sociology. Sociology s strong focus on environmental explanations for behaviors extended into criminology. In addition, early scholars worried that biological theories were racist and argued for genetic determinism. Most recently however, scholars have been examining how biological issues like head trauma, abnormalities of the brain, excess hormones, and vitamin deficiencies may be related to crime. Some of the earliest biological theories of crime come from criminal anthropology; the study of crime and human physical attributes. Ancient Greek culture, for example, believed that the body and mind were closely connected to one another, in such a way that, if the body was deformed or abnormal, the mind would be also. Centuries later, Franz Joseph Gull, 1758 to 1828, suggested that a person's skull could predict their criminal tendencies. He believed that parts of our personalities were found in particular places in our brains. This would then be reflected in the shape and characteristics of our skulls. Gull s theory of phrenology, or craniology, suggested that by seeing or feeling a person's skull, we could have insight into their personality and which characteristics were over- or underdeveloped. Gull s theory was important because he is one of the first theorists to link the personality to the brain whereas in earlier times the personality was often linked to other parts of the body, such as the adjective hardhearted reveals. The influence of phrenology was great, and you can even find the fictional Sherlock Holmes using it to solve several crimes. Another famous early theory comes from Cesare Lombroso in the late 1800s. He was one of the first criminologists to apply scientific research to the study of crime. Through autopsies and post-mortem study of criminals, Lombroso looked for differences that might indicate tendencies toward criminal behavior. In one infamous criminal, Vilella, Lombroso found an unusual depression in the man's brain and suggested that the features of Vilella s brain were similar to primates. Lombroso also studied over eight hundred living inmates and the bodies of over 60 executed individuals. In his studies, Lombroso argued that he found a number of physical characteristics that indicated criminal tendencies. Some of these included very long arms, eyes that are either too close or too far apart, a long index finger, a crooked nose, and an abnormal amount of ribs among other characteristics. Lombroso even suggested certain physical characteristics were related to particular types of crime. For example, he argued that murderers often had curly dark hair, delicate lips well developed canine teeth and cold eyes. He believed that individuals were born with these characteristics, or would develop them due to genetics and biology. In his later work, Lombroso would add that criminals often exhibited below normal hearing, very good eyesight, a tendency to have tattoos, and a lack of morals. Lombroso also believe that women possessed fewer criminal tendencies than men. When women committed crimes, according to him, it was because they possessed masculine characteristics and features. Konrad Lorenz published his famous work on aggression in Lorenz built on Charles Darwin's theory and argued that all human behavior is adapted, instinctive behavior. For Lorenz, our biological instincts were at the root of all of our thoughts and behavior. He believed that aggression had many forms in modern society, such as the drive for power and wealth. He argued that overcrowded conditions in many cities, combined with not enough economic and other opportunities, contributed to crime today. In other words, these conditions make it more likely that our instinct for aggression will come out in the form of crime. Body Type Theories While Lombroso and Gull look at physical abnormalities and differences, other theorists examine overall body structure or type to help explain crime. Constitutional theories are those that explain crime as related to genetics, body types, and other physical attributes. Somatotyping, or using body types to explain crime, often use different body type categories arguing that each body type had different personality characteristics. William H. Sheldon used somatotyping in his research with 200 boys between the ages of 15 and 21. He argued that there are four body types:

3 Endomorphs are individuals who are soft and round with a large digestive area. In other words these individuals have a large stomach and are overweight. Mesomorphs are individuals who are muscular and athletic. These individuals may have a larger bone structure or muscle mass. Ectomorphs are individuals who are thin and frail. Balanced individuals are those who are not overweight, too muscular, or too thin. Sheldon used a seven point scale to rank individuals and place them into one of the body types. He argued that personalities were related to a person's body type. For example he believed that endomorphs were more likely to be relaxed and outgoing. Ectomorphs were more likely to be shy and restrained. Mesomorphs, according to Sheldon, were most likely to be delinquents. Chemical Theories You've probably heard the old saying you are what you eat. Some theorists and researchers have examined how nutrition, vitamins, environmental containments, and endocrinology may have an effect on criminal behavior. Their argument is that what we eat, breathe and take into our bodies may produce an effect on our behavior. During the 1980 s the theory that sugar intake was related to crime was used in court to gain a lighter sentence for a convicted killer. The defense suggested that sodas and Twinkies that the man had ingested were full of refined white sugar, which made the man more excitable and lowered his ability to reason. However, future studies have failed to find a connection between sugar and these effects. In the late 1990 s researchers began to consider how pollution might be related to crime. One contaminant that a number of studies have focused on is lead. One study looked at lead levels in 1,000 children in Philadelphia. This study found that the level of exposure to lead was a good predictor of the severity and number of juvenile offenses, as well as the amount of adult crimes. Toxic metals like lead may affect the body in different ways. For example, researchers think that higher lead levels may make the effects of drugs and alcohol more severe. It may also break down a person's ability to control impulsive behavior. Hormonal Theories A number of studies have also examined the links between hormones and crime. Testosterone, for example, has been linked to aggression. Men with higher levels of testosterone in their blood are also more likely to be aggressive. Some studies have found that aggression and violence increase in teenagers as the level of testosterone rises. Although women have much less testosterone than men, some studies have also found that relatively higher levels in women can produce changes in their personality and more aggressive behavior. While many studies have found a relationship between this hormone and crime, researchers do note that the effect of high testosterone is likely to be influenced by the social environment around the person. In other words, just because someone has high levels of testosterone doesn't mean that they will automatically become aggressive or violent. Some research also indicates that other factors in the body may influence the link between testosterone and aggression. One study found that high levels of testosterone combined with low levels in the brain of the neurotransmitter serotonin may increase aggression. Researchers believe that serotonin can reduce frustration and make individuals calmer. So when men do not have high enough levels, high testosterone levels have a greater effect than they would in the presence of serotonin. Women may also be affected by other hormone levels. Several famous court cases have involved the defense that pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) effected the behavior of the woman on trial. A British case in 1980 involved a

4 woman who ran over her boyfriend and killed him after an argument. At her trial the defense called an expert witness who testified that the woman's PMS had caused her to be irritable and to lose self-control. While the link between PMS and aggressive behavior in women is still unclear, researchers believe that serotonin may also play a role, as it seems to do with high levels of testosterone. Some studies suggest that low levels of serotonin may be related to impulsive types of crimes. A Swedish study in 2003 suggested that low serotonin levels in the brain could result in more impulsive, aggressive, and irresponsible behavior. Weather and Crime Some scholars have suggested that weather may affect our behavior. While many different types of weather have been studied, temperature is the only factor that can be consistently connected to crime. Researchers have found that more crime occurs on warm weather days than on cold weather days. Changes in the barometric pressure may also be associated with changes in blood flow in the brain, which may increase impulsive behavior. However, researchers have also found that the day of the week and the time of day influence the connection between temperature and crime. A study that looked at crime in Minneapolis found that the connection between temperature and assaults was strongest in the early hours of night. Scholars think that extreme cold and hot temperatures keep people away from each other. We stay home in the heat or air conditioning, for example, and that this creates less opportunity for crimes like assaults. The time of day also affects the opportunity for crime, as people are often in situations ripe for crimes like assaults during the evening hours and on weekends. Psychological Theories Have you ever seen a news report on a crime and thought to yourself he must be crazy, or you'd have to be mad to do that? If so, you've already started thinking of psychological explanations for crime. Psychological theories about crime have been around for a long time and we sometimes see them used in court cases via the insanity defense. Forensic or criminal psychology is the use of psychological research and practice to better understand crime, law, and criminals. Psychological theories of crime focus on the individual. Many early psychological theories focused on psychopathy, or mental disease. In other words, individuals who committed a crime were thought to have some mental problem or abnormality. Extreme crimes are often difficult for us to understand. Some of these extreme crimes are due to psychosis, or being out of touch with reality. Individuals who suffer from psychosis may experience delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized thinking. Some crime is certainly due to psychosis. Personality Types and Crime In the 1960 s Hans J. Eysenck argued that crime was related to particular personality types. He identified three different personality traits that he believed were associated with crime. Psychoticism, according to Eysenck, is characterized by antisocial ability and a lack of empathy. Extroverts are sociable, outgoing, dominant, and have high levels of energy. Finally, neuroticism is characterized by moodiness, shyness, and irrationality. Eysenck believed that these traits were associated with crime because individuals who had them were harder to train and socialize, and they responded more quickly to stimuli. He thought that the effects of these traits made it harder for individuals to develop a full conscience, and that the individual would be more likely to retain childlike behaviors. Eysenck also argued that whether a person had these personality traits or not was dependent on their nervous system. Individuals who had nervous systems that needed stimulation or excitement were more likely to have them. The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Crime

5 Sigmund Freud is one of the most well-known and influential psychiatrists in the field of psychology. So it is not surprising that his theories have also filtered into criminology. From the perspective of Freud's theories on personality, crime is viewed as a person either not adapting well or having some deficiency in his or her personality. Freud argued that personality has three components: the id, ego, and super ego. The id is the base of our personality from which our unconscious drives, desires, and urges come. Freud believed that the id operated by seeking the immediate fulfilment of a person's urges and drives, although we may not be aware of this, since the id exists in our unconscious region. If we apply this concept to crime, the theory suggests that we are all potential criminals, although other parts of our personality keep these urges and drives under control. The ego is the second component of personality for Freud. The ego is the rational part of our personality that is seeking to accomplish particular objectives. It recognizes that sometimes immediate fulfillment of a drive should be controlled in order to reach a longer term goal or objective. It seeks to find strategies that will give us pleasure without pain, rather than blindly acting without thought about the consequence. Finally the super ego is the moral guide of our personality. When this aspect of our personality develops correctly, according to Freud, it weighs in on the urges and desires of the id and the plans of the ego, and rejects those that are not ethically right. According to Freud's theory, one reason why crime may occur is if the super ego is not developed fully. In this case, the person would be more likely to act on their urges and desires without considering the consequences and the morality of the action. Modeling Theory What effect do violent video games and other media have on children and teenagers? Do you think that violent video games can lead to violent behavior? The issue of violent media, including video games, is a controversial one. The underlying idea in this debate is whether violent behavior can be learned by seeing or experiencing violence. Gabriel Tarde developed one of the earliest theories of learned behavior. He argued that we have a tendency to pattern our actions and behavior on the actions and behaviors of others. His theory had three parts. First he argued that people in close contact with each other often imitate the social behavior of those they are in contact with. Second he suggested that imitation occurred top down. In other words, we tend to imitate people who are older, more powerful, and wealthier than we are. For example, children are likely to imitate the behaviors of their parents or other adults. Finally, new behaviors either replace or reinforce the old ones. For example, new forms of crime, such as stealing identities online to get money, may replace old forms of crime (robbing a bank). More recently, other theorists have examined how learned behavior relates to aggression. Albert Bandura argued that aggressive behaviors have to be learned, although we are all capable of violence. His modeling theory argues that we learn how to act by watching the actions of others. In one of his famous experiments Bandura had children watch adults hitting inflatable cartoon characters. The children that watched this behavior were later more aggressive in their own play session than children who didn't witness it. Bandura argued that once a person had learned aggressive behavior something had to trigger it. He suggested that there are a number of different triggers including insults, physical attacks, and having one's goals obstructed in some way. Bandura also suggested that people can become aggressive because they are rewarded for being aggressive. For example, a football player may exhibit aggression because it is rewarded and valued on the football field. While he believed that aggression was learned, Bandura didn't believe that we are automatically aggressive.

6 Instead, he argued that we have self-regulating methods that can keep us from being violent even in the face of triggers. This helps explain why some individuals are violent and others are not in a given situation. Self-control Theory Another theory that is used to try to explain crime is self-control theory. This theory argues that some people have lower levels of self-control than other individuals, which makes them more likely to commit crimes. In some cases, psychologists suggest that deficiencies in self-control cause personal issues like for money management, school failure, drug abuse obesity, and lack of exercise. Criminologists Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi argue that self-control develops when we are children and that low levels of self-control are one of the primary causes of individual-level crime. They propose that some individuals have a greater likelihood of ignoring the consequences of their behavior and act selfishly and recklessly. Following Gottfredson and Hirschi, other scholars have proposed that individuals with low self-control are impulsive, and that they seek the immediate fulfillment of their wants and urges. Harold G. Grasmick, for example, suggested that people with low self-control are drawn to risk taking behaviors that are exciting and dangerous. Insanity, Crime, and Law In addition to various theories about why crime happens, psychology has also offered a large contribution to ideas and policies on the relationship between mental illness and crime. Legally, the insanity is a type of defense that can be used in court cases. Strictly speaking there are no hard and fast rules for when mental illness fulfills the legal requirement of insanity. It is important to note that insanity is a legal term rather than a medical one. One of the first instances when the not guilty by reason of insanity defense was used in Western culture was the case of Daniel M Naughten. The defendant was on trial for killing the secretary to the prime minister in His defense argued that M Naughten suffered from delusions that the political party was persecuting him. The judge's ruling led to what is known as the M Naughten Rule, which says that a person can't be held responsible for a crime if they didn't know what they were doing at the time of the crime, and didn't know what they were doing was wrong. Another rule of insanity that is used in some states in the United States is the irresistible-impulse test, which states that if a person because of their mental state cannot resist committing a crime, they cannot be held responsible. In general, however, it is hard to prove that a person cannot resist a particular act or that they cannot control their behavior. Some states in the United States combine the M Naughten Rule and the irresistible-impulse test in what is known as the substantial-capacity test. This test states that an individual should have the mental capacity to understand that an act is wrong or conform his or her behavior to the law. In some places juries are given the choice of finding a defendant guilty but insane or guilty but mentally ill (GBMI). This verdict recognizes that an individual may have some degree of mental incompetence but holds them responsible for the crime they are accused of. The verdict is used when an individual is proved to have been mentally ill at the time that the crime was committed, but was not found to be legally insane. When an individual receives a GBMI verdict they are typically given a sentence but sent to a psychiatric hospital rather than prison. If the individual is deemed cured, then the individual may be sent to prison to finish out the sentence. Profiling

7 Another role of psychology in understanding crime and criminals is something that you have probably seen portrayed on television or in movies: profiling. During World War II the US government began using psychologists to try to predict future actions of leaders like Germany's Hitler. Today, psychological profiling helps law enforcement better understand the individuals that they are seeking for serious crimes. Psychological profiling is also known as criminal profiling and behavioral profiling. Profiling uses the idea that every crime has some connection to the perpetrator s personality. In other words the way that a kidnapper approaches his victims or the choice of victims for a serial killer may be influenced by the perpetrators personality, giving psychologists and law enforcement insight into the person behind the crimes and what the person might do in the future. Although profiling may not help solve every crime, it can be useful in helping law enforcement narrow down who they are looking for with specific crimes. Profilers have also contributed to criminology through studying criminals and specific types of crimes and personalities. Today the FBI uses the Behavioral Science Unit (BSU) to study and develop new interrogation techniques and knowledge on how profiling can help solve crimes.