Mr.Zelalem Gebeyehu 1, Dr.A.Kathiresan 2. Lecturer in Economics, College of Business & Economics, Wollo University, Ethiopia, East Africa

Transcription

1 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: Management THE SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING GIRS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND GENDER BASED VIOENCE IN HIGHER INSTITUTION: CASE STUDY IN UNIVERSITIES IN AMHARA REGIONA STATE Mr.Zelalem Gebeyehu 1, Dr.A.Kathresan 2 1 ecturer n Economcs, College of Busness & Economcs, Wollo Unversty, Ethopa, East Afrca 2 Assstant Professor n Economcs, College of Busness & Economcs, Wollo Unversty, Ethopa, East Afrca DOI: Abstract At the begnnng of human hstory, the envronment favored and promoted equalty of males and females. However, as the exposure of males to the natural envronment dffered, varous actvtes and dangers ncreased, both sexes started to dffer n the nature and depth of experence. Snce then, the gender dsparty that began n ths way was wdened by relgous, poltcal, economc, cultural and other factors. Currently, gender dfferentatons are reflected n the accesses to the three precous thngs of the world, poltcal power, economc prvleges and socal or cultural prestge. In the 21st century, knowledge plays the leadng role and educaton s the central element that natons can use to mantan equalty among socety specally to nsure gender equalty. Thus ths paper would attempt to dentfy the soco-economc factors affectng grl's academc achevement and gender based volence n hgher nsttutons n case of Amhara regonal state by selectng two unversty from frst, one from second and two from thrd generaton unverstes ncludng Wollo fve unverstes wll be ncluded out of the total seven unverstes found n the regon. The respondents are selected randomly from each unversty. The respondents ncluded n ths study are female students, gender offce, nstructors, student deans and regstrar workers. The data would be collected usng Focus group dscusson, ntervew and questonnares. To analyze the data logstc regresson and two lmt Tobt model would be used. Even f there s some progressve trend, the grl s academc achevement s low and ther attrton rate s hgh. That s ther mean achevement below the natonal average. From econometrcs result t has been found that entrance exam result, parents ncome, personal related factors, peer pressure the major factors that substantally determnes level of grl s academc achevement. Smlarly, though there are postve changes regardng gender based volence stll sgnfcant porton of grls were vulnerable. That s 20 percent out of the total surveyed grls were volated and percent stll exploted by the transacton sex n the nearby ctes. Besdes, the logstc regresson analyss showed that gender based volence hghly depend on the Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [36]

2 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: personalty those grls wth strong personalty and self-esteemed grls have less chance of beng harassed or abused verbally, physcally and psychologcally. Keywords: Grls; Academc Achevement; Gender Based Volence. Cte Ths Artcle: Mr.Zelalem Gebeyehu, and Dr.A.Kathresan. (2016). THE SOCIO ECONOMIC FACTORS AFFECTING GIRS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND GENDER BASED VIOENCE IN HIGHER INSTITUTION: CASE STUDY IN UNIVERSITIES IN AMHARA REGIONA STATE. Internatonal Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 4(12)SE, Introducton 1.1.Background At the begnnng of human hstory, the envronment favored and promoted equalty of males and females. However, as the exposure of males to the natural envronment dffered, varous actvtes and dangers ncreased, both sexes started to dffer n the nature and depth of experence. Snce then, the gender dsparty that began n ths way was wdened by relgous, poltcal, economc, cultural and other factors. Currently, gender dfferentatons are reflected n the accesses to the three precous thngs of the world, poltcal power, economc prvleges and socal or cultural prestge (Yeshmebrat et al., 2009). Accordngly, ths study wll nvestgate the factors that affect gender based volence aganst women and grls. At the same tme, the study wll examne those factors affectng academc achevement of grls n hgher nsttutons. In lne wth ths consderaton of determnant factors of grls educaton performance and gender volence s vtal because t provdes nformaton that wll enable to undertake effectve measure wth the am of mprovng grls academc achevement and mnmzng gender based volence and thus wll helps concerned bodes such as Unverstes, Mnster of Educaton, NGO s and Polcy makers to have a knowledge as to where and how to channel efforts to mprove grls educaton performance and mnmze gender volence.therefore, ths study would be conducted n hgher nsttutons partcularly unverstes whch found n Amhara Regonal State to analyze the soco economc factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence. 1.2.Statement of the Problem Educaton s the sngle most mportant nstrument for socal and economc transformaton. A well-educated populaton, adequately equpped wth knowledge and skll s not only essental to support economc growth, but s also a precondton for growth to be nclusve, snce t s only the educated and sklled person who can stand to beneft most from the employment opportuntes whch growth wll provde. Improvements n educaton are not only expected to enhance the effcency but also augment the overall qualty of lfe. Educaton s an nstrument of socal change and elmnates gender dspartes and ensures equal opportuntes (Consdne and Zappala, 2002). Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [37]

3 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: The past emprcal studes that were conducted on the factors contrbutng to grls academc achevement and gender volence n dfferent regons are not smlar and the ssues that were dentfed as problems n the prevous studes may not ssue today. Ths s because changes are n a contnuous process that s brngng new challenges and soco economc varables are dynamc n nature. In addton to these, factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence are not yet studed n the study area relatng wth Economc ssues usng approprate econometrc models snce root cause s economy. Therefore, ths study ntated wth the man objectve of analyzng determnants of grls academc achevement and gender volence n unverstes n Amhara Natonal Regonal State. Research Questons Ths partcular study wll attempt to address at least the followng questons: What are the most mportant factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence n the study area? What s the level of grls academc achevement across unverstes n the regon? Why grls do expose to sex market nearby ctes n the regon? Do grls receve adequate support from teachers and frends? Are grls vctms of sexual harassment and verbal abuse? Does grls resdence affect ther academc performance? 1.3.Objectves of the Study The general objectve of ths study s to nvestgate the soco economc factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence n hgher nsttuton n Amhara regonal State. The specfc objectves are: 1) To dentfy soco-economc and nsttutonal factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence n hgher nsttuton 2) To determne the extent of grls academc achevement and gender volence n hgher nsttuton offered to n the study area. 3) To compare Volence and non-volence Grls n terms of dfferent explanatory varables. 4) To compare the degree of grls academc achevement and gender volence across unverstes. 1.4.Sgnfcance of the Study The study on soco-economc and nsttutonal factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence s vtal as t wll enables governmental and non-governmental hgher nsttutons, polcy makers as well as communty to know as to where and how to channel efforts n order to enhance grls academc achevement and to end up gender based volence as well as grls sex market. The dentfcaton of factors encumberng grls academc achevement and gender volence wll also help to formulate successful educatonal polces and nterventon programs. In addton to these, the study wll provde bench mark nformaton for those who would lke to conduct detaled and comprehensve studes on soco-economc and nsttutonal factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence. Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [38]

4 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: Scope of the Study and mtatons The study would ams at dentfyng soco-economc factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender volence n unverstes n Amhara Natonal Regonal State usng cross sectonal data va ntensve survey. Even though grls problems are multfaceted n ths study attempts would be made to examne on campus and off campus problems that cause low academc performance of female students and growng of students sex market nearby ctes. The ssues of gender manstreamng and the nature of currculum were not be dealt n ths study. 2. Revew of terature Hstory of educaton n Ethopa dates back to the tme of ntroducton of Chrstanty n 330 AD, but towards the end of 19th century, the need for modern educaton emerged and t was ntated n 1908 wth the openng of Menelk II School n Adds Ababa (Asmaru, 2010). Asmaru (2010) further explans that the next proclamaton by Empress Zewdtu was another landmark n the hstory of female s educaton n Ethopa, whch forced parents to send ther chldren to school, and falure to do so was to result n penalzng parents for volaton of the law. ater, n 1944, a Memorandum of Educaton was adopted to create access to mass educaton, address gender equty, and promote lteracy. Ncola et al., (2008) ndcated that some of the crtcal factors affectng female educaton nclude early pregnancy, psychologcal cost of pregnancy, drect cost of schoolng, socetal perceptons, the labor market, opportunty costs, famly poverty, rrelevant currculum, nsecurty, structural attrbutes and classroom culture. Odaga and Heneveld (1995) showed that both grls and boys have low expectatons of female achevements n school and of career prospects. Daw (2010) also opned that cultural barrers exert strong and adverse nfluence on grls educaton by early marrage, teenage pregnances, tradtonal values of patrarchal socety, and gender based volence. 3. Research Methodology 3.1.Descrpton of the Area The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa (FDRE) s admnstratvely dvded nto nne natonal regonal states and two admnstratve councls. The Amhara Natonal Regonal State s one of the nne Natonal Regonal States. The study would be conducted n 7 unverstes n Amhara Natonal Regonal State namely Wollo Unversty, Woldya Unversty, Debrtabor Unversty, Debrebrhan Unversty, Debremarkos unversty, Gondar unversty and Bahrdar unversty. Amhara Natonal Regonal State s located at 9 o and 13 o 45 north lattude and 36 o and 13 o 45 east longtude. The land area covers about 170,752 Km 2. It s bordered wth Afar n the east, Benshangul Gumuz n the south western, Oroma n the south and South western, Tgray n the north and wth the Sudan n the west. Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [39]

5 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: Samplng Technque and Sample Sze Mult-stage samplng method was used to obtan the necessary nformaton from respondents such as grls, student deans, gender offcers and nstructor; frst four unverstes n the regon were selected usng stratfed samplng technque that s two from aged unverstes, one from lately establshed unverstes and two from recently establshed unverstes assumng that unverstes n each stratum have smlar socal, economc and Insttutonal characterstcs. In the second stage Cluster samplng technque was used for each selected Unverstes. Fnally lst of respondents were recorded from each unverstes plannng and regstrar offces and a total of 301 grls, 4 student deans, 4 gender offcers and 32 nstructors from these 5 Unverstes would be selected usng smple random samplng technques. 3.3.Data Source and Collecton Method Both prmary and secondary data would be used for the study. Prmary data would be used to study the whole stuaton of grls academc performance and gender based volence. The prmary data was collected from grls, student deans, gender offcers and nstructors drectly through ntervew, focus group dscusson and questonnares. The questonnares were developed and pre-tested to evaluate for consstency, clarty and to avod duplcaton and to estmate the tme requrement durng data collecton. Approprate tranngs were gven to the enumerators to develop ther understandng regardng the objectves of the study, the content of the questonnare, how to approach the respondents and conduct the ntervew. Secondary data was collected from MoE, Unverstes gender and plannng offces, MoWA and other relevant nsttutons. 3.4.Method of Data Analyss Descrptve Statstcs Descrptve statstcs s one of the technques whch would be used to summarze nformaton (data) collected from a sample. By applyng descrptve statstcs such as mean, standard devaton, frequency of appearance etc. one can compare and contrast dfferent categores of sample unts wth respect to the desred characters so as to draw some mportant conclusons. In addton, t-test and Ch-square test statstcs would be employed to compare Vctms and nonvctms as well as performers and non-performers group wth respect to some explanatory varables Econometrc Model Both qualtatve and quanttatve technques were used to analyse the data. Two lmt Tobt analyss that best ft the data was used to analyze the soco-economc factors affectng grls academc achevement whle logstc regresson analyss was used to dentfy the mportant factors that affect vctms and non-vctms of gender based volence. Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [40]

6 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: Two lmt Tobt Model When nformaton on the regressand s avalable for some observatons, usng ordnary lst square (OS) may result n a based and nconsstent parameter estmates even asymptotcally. The bas arses from the fact that f we consder only the observable observatons (.e., only observatons for whch the values of the dependent varable are observed) and omt the others, there s no guarantee that the expected value of the error terms, E(u), wll be necessarly zero. And wthout E(u) =0 we cannot guarantee that the OS estmates wll be unbased (Greene, 2000). There are three types of regresson models under the lmted dependent varables models. These are censored or tobt regresson, truncated regresson and sample selected regresson models. Inferrng the characterstcs of a populaton from a sample drawn from a restrcted part of the populaton s known as truncaton. A truncated dstrbuton s the part of un truncated dstrbuton that s above or below some specfed value (Greene, 2000). Whereas a sample n whch nformaton on the regressand s avalable only for some observaton s known as censored sample. The use of tobt models to study censored and lmted dependent varables has become ncreasngly common n appled socal scence research for the past two decades (Smth and Brame, 2003). Tobt s an extenson of the probt model and t s one approach to dealng wth the problem of censored data (Johnston and Dnardo, 1997). In addton, bnomal models, explan only the probablty that an ndvdual made a certan choce (.e., acheved or has not acheved) and they fal to take nto account the degree of academc achevement. The lnear probablty model (PM), even though computatonally and conceptually smpler and easer than the bnary choce models, t depends on the use of OS approach. Applcaton of OS to censored model however, nherently produces hetroscedastc dsturbance term () and as a result, the standard devatons of the estmates are based. These nadequaces are mnmzed wth the use of the tobt model (Tobn, 1958). Censored regresson models refer to a model n whch we observe the dependent varable only f t les above or below some cut off level. The tobt model s one of the censored regresson models that arse when the dependent varable s lmted (or censored) from above and/or below. It s a nonlnear model and s estmated usng maxmum lkelhood estmaton technques. It was used to analyze factors that nfluence grls academc performance. Ths method estmates the lkelhood of falures and the extent (.e., ntensty) of falures. In ths study the value of the dependent varable s grls academc achevement durng ther stay n unversty, whch s a contnuous varable, calculated from ther weghted average GPA of that a grl s scored dvded by maxmum GPA. Thus, the value of the dependent varable ranges between 0 and 1 and a two-lmt tobt model has been chosen as a more approprate econometrc model. Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [41]

7 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: The two-lmt tobt was orgnally presented by Rossett and Nelson (1975) and dscussed n detal by Maddala (1992) and ong (1997). The model derves from an underlyng classcal normal lnear regresson and can be represented as: Y*= X + (1) ~ N [0, 2 ]. Denotng Y as the observed dependent (censored) varable f Y* Y = Y*= X + f < Y* <U (2) U f Y* U Where, Y = the observed dependent varable, n our case grls academc achevement durng ther stay n unversty; Y * = the latent varable (unobserved for values smaller than 0 and greater than 1); X = a vector of ndependent varables (factors affectng grls academc achevement durng ther stay n unversty); =Vector of unknown parameters; =Resduals 2 that are ndependently and normally dstrbuted wth mean zero and a common varance,and = 1,2, n ( n s the number of observatons). The log lkelhood functon for the general two-lmt tobt model can be gven as follow: 2 1 y x 2 log wj log2 2 jc yj x wj log j (3) yrj x wj log1 jr ji y wj log 2 j x y 1 j x Where C s are pont observatons, s are left censored observatons, R s are rght-censored observatons, and I s are ntervals. And Φ s the standard cumulatve normal dstrbuton, and the w j s the normalzed weght of the j th observaton.the tobt coeffcents do not drectly gve the margnal effects of the assocated ndependent varables on the dependent varable. But ther sgns show the drecton of change n probablty of beng achevers and margnal ntensty of academc success as the respectve explanatory varable change (Amemya, 1984; Goodwn, 1992; Maddala, 1992). The tobt model has an advantage n that ts coeffcents can be farther dsaggregated to determne the effect of a change n the th varable on changes n the probablty of beng achevers (Mc Donaled and Mofft, 1980) as follows: Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [42]

8 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: The change n the probablty of grls academc achevement as ndependent varable X changes s: ( ) ( ) (4) X 2. The change n ntensty of academc success wth respect to a change n an explanatory varable among average achever s: U( U 2 U U * E( Y / U Y, X ) ) 1 (5) X U 3. The margnal effect of an explanatory varable on the expected value of the dependent Varable s: E( Y / X ) ( u ) ( ) (6) X X Where, X= explanatory varables; () = the cumulatve normal dstrbuton; = = the z- score for the area under normal curve; =a vector of tobt maxmum lkelhood estmates; =the standard error of the error term. X U X U and U are threshold values ( =0 and U =1 ) and are probablty densty and cumulatve densty functons of the standard normal dstrbuton, respectvely ogstc Regresson Model Ths study s ntended to analyze whch and how much the hypotheszed regressors would be related to gender based volence ncludng sex market. As already noted, the dependent varable s a dummy varable, whch takes a value zero or one dependng on whether or not grls vctmed. However, the ndependent varables are of both types, that s, contnuous or categorcal. In the analyss of studes nvolvng qualtatve choces, usually a choce has to be made between logt and probt models. Accordng to Amemya (1981), the statstcal smlartes between logt and probt models make the choce between them dffcult. Hosmer and emeshew (1989) ponted out that a logstc dstrbuton (logt) has got advantage over the others n the analyss of dchotomous outcome varable n that t s extremely flexble and easly used model from mathematcal pont of vew and results n a meanngful nterpretaton. Hence, the logstc model s selected for ths study. Therefore, the cumulatve logstc probablty model s econometrcally specfed as follows: Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [43]

9 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: P F Where, P s the probablty that an ndvdual wll make a certan choce (vctm or does not vctm) gven X ; e denotes the base of natural logarthms, whch s approxmately equal to 2.718; X represents the th explanatory varables; and and are parameters to be estmated Hosmer and emeshew (1989) ponted out that the logstc model could be wrtten n terms of the odds and log of odds, whch enables one to understand the nterpretaton of the coeffcents. The odds rato mples the rato of the probablty (P ) that an ndvdual would choose an alternatve to the probablty (1-P ) that he/she would not choose t. 1 1 P... 2 Z 1 e Therefore, Z F X Z e P 1 e 1 P 1 e Z Z e Z... 3 or, P Z n 1 P Takng the natural logarthm of equaton (4)... 5 If the dsturbance term (u ) s taken nto account, the logt model becomes m m Z m 1 To test Multcollnearty Problem varance nflaton factor (VIF) wll be used. VIF greater or equal to 10 s an ndcator for the exstence of serous problem of multcollnearty. Contngency coeffcents wll be calculated to see the degree of assocaton between the dummy varables. Contngency coeffcent s a ch-square based measure of assocaton. Value of 0.75 or more ndcates a strong relatonshp. Heteroscedastcty wll be detected by usng Breusch- Pagen test. 4. Conclusons u... 6 In ths study attempted has been made to assess soco economc factors affectng grls academc achevement and gender based volence n hgher nsttuton: case study of unverstes n Amhara regonal state Ethopa. Even f there s some progressve trend the grls academc achevement s low and ther attrton rate s hgh so n ths study tres to nvestgate what are the Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [44]

10 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: most crtcal factors responsble for low academc achevement n hgher nsttutons. That s ther mean achevement below the natonal average. From econometrcs result t has been found that entrance exam result, parents ncome, personal related factors, peer pressure the major factors that substantally determnes level of grl s academc achevement. Smlarly, though there are postve changes regardng gender based volence stll sgnfcant porton of grls were vulnerable. That s 20 percent out of the total surveyed grls were volated and percent stll exploted by the transacton sex n the nearby ctes. Besdes, the logstc regresson analyss showed that gender based volence hghly depend on the personalty those grls wth strong personalty and self-esteemed grls have less chance of beng harassed or abused verbally physcally psychologcally. Generally that both the qualtatve and quanttatve results verfy that personalty factor, economc factor and peer pressures are the top and most determnng factors of both gender based volence and grls' academc achevement. References [1] Teshome N, ow Partcpaton of Female Students n Prmary Educaton: A Case of Dropouts from the Amhara and Oroma Regonal States n Ethopa. Adds Ababa: UNESCO Internatonal Insttute for Capacty Buldng n Afrca. [2] Alemayehu Bogale, Grl's Partcpaton and Performance n Secondary Schools of SNNPR. M.A Thess Presented to the School of Graduate Studes of Adds AbabaUnversty. [3] Asmaru Berhun, Overvews of Female Educaton n Ethopa. Gender Management Process, Mnstry of Educaton, The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa, Adds Ababa. [4] MoE (Mnstry of Educaton), Improvng Retenton wth a Specal Focus on Grls.The Womens Affars Department, Mnstry of Educaton, The Federal Democratc [5] Republc of Ethopa, Adds Ababa [6] 2004a. A Study of Gender Gap n Enrolemnt, Retenton and Performance n Prmary Schools of Fve Regons. Mnstry of Educaton, The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa, Adds Ababa [7] Program Acton Plan, Educaton Sector Development Program III (ESDP-III), The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa, Adds Ababa. [8] A Study on Volence aganst Grls n Prmary Schools and ts Impacts on Grls Educaton n Ethopa. The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa,Adds Ababa [9] FDRE (The Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa) The Consttuton of the Federal Democratc Republc of Ethopa. Federal Negart Gazeta Vol.1 No. 1 [10] Ncola, Jones, Karen Moore, Elana Vllar-Marquez and Emma Broadbent, Panful essons: The Poltcs of Preventng Sexual Volence and Bullyng at School. Overseas Development Insttute. ondon, UK. [11] Gujarat, Damodar N Basc Econometrcs. Second Edton. McGraw-Hll Book Company, New York. U.S.A. [12] Maddala, G.S mted Dependent and Qualtatve Varables n Econometrcs. Cambrdge Unversty Press, New York. [13] Kmenta, J Elements of Econometrcs. Second Edton. Macmllan Pub. Co. New York. U.S.A. [14] Pndyck, Robert S. and Rubnfeld, Danel Econometrc Models and Economc Forecasts. Second Edton. McGraw-Hll Book company, New York. [15] Hosmer, D.W. and emeshew, S Appled ogstc Regresson. A Wley-Inter-scence Publcaton, New York. [16] Golden, S. A. R. (2016). RURA STUDENTS ATTITUDE TOWARDS ENGISH AS MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN HIGHER EDUCATION AN ANAYSIS. Internatonal Journal of Research, 3(Specal Issue - 16), Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [45]

11 ICV (Index Coperncus Value) 2015: [17] CSA (Central Statstcal Agency), Natonal Report on Demographc Data for Development Ethopa. CSA, Adds Ababa, Ethopa. [18] Yeshmebrat Mersha, Alemayehu Bshaw, Dawt Asrat and Ysmaw Ngusse, Polcy nterventon on factors affectng female students academc achevement and causes of attrton n hgher learnng nsttutons of Ethopa. [19] Anl Duman, Female Educaton Inequalty n Turkey: factors affectng grls schoolng. Central European Unversty. [20] USAID, Gender-based volence preventon and response actvtes. USA. [21] Golden, S. A. R. (2011). Strategy For Success Of Human Bengs:-Tme Management. [22] Alemayehu, 2012.Studes on Soco-economc affars n Ethopa. Adds Ababa, Ethopa. [23] Taneja,M. and R.M.Myer, Economcs of Development and plannng. Jalandhar, Delh. [24] Consdne, G. and G. Zappala, 2002.Factors nfluencng the educatonal performance of students from dsadvantaged backgrounds. Unversty of New South Wales, Sydney. [25] Berry.J., The effect of soco economc status on academc achevement, Wchta State Unversty. [26] Wllams, N. Penelope, R.W. Connell and V.M. Whte, Research on poverty and educaton, , n R.W. Connell, V.M. Whte and K.M. Johnston, eds,.runnng Twce as Hard: The Dsadvantaged Schools Program n Australa, Deakn Unversty Press, Geelong. [27] Mukherjee, D. (1995).The relatonshp between soco-economc background and partcpaton n educaton. Darlnghurst. [28] Reg, S. B., & Golden, S. A. R. (2014). A Study On Educatonal oan Avaled By Students In Trchy Cty. Journal Of Internatonal Academc Research For Multdscplnary (Jarm), 2 (1). Internatonal Journal of Research - GRANTHAAAYAH [46]