Lesson 1 Sentence Structure

Transcription

1 Lesson 1 Sentence Structure A sentence consists of two main parts: subject and predicate. The subject is what the sentence is about and the predicate is what talks about the subject. No matter how complex (how long) or how simple (how short) a sentence is, it must consist of the subject and the predicate as shown by the following diagram: Sentence Subject Predicate 1. Salmonellae are pathogens with an enormous impact on public health. has historically provided and continues 2. The study of viruses to provide the basis or much of our most fundamental understanding of modern biology, genetics, and medicine. That rabies is transmitted by the bite of infected animals to other animals and humans are well known in almost all human cultures The subject of the sentence is usually a noun phrase ( นามวล หร อ กล มคานาม, abbreaviated as '' )and the predicate of the sentence is always a verb phrase กร ยาวล (abbreated as a 'VP'). Besides an, a sentence itself can be a subject of another sentence as in (3). There are different kinds of s and VPs in terms of the number of words and their part of speech that are contained in the or VP. An can consist of one single noun as shown by (1) above or it may consist of any number of words. A VP can consist of any number of words. No matter how many words an or a VP consists of, an must have a noun and a VP must have a verb. So whenever you come across a long and complex sentence that is difficult for you to understand, you should first try to identify the subject and the predicate of the sentence. This will help you where to

2 U of start. Usually, you should try to understand what the subject of the sentence means, then proceed to work on the predicate. Parts of Speech Words in the language can be grouped into categories based on where they can occur in the sentence. These categories are noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition and determiner, etc. Nouns and Noun Phrases A noun can combine with other words to become a noun phrase. A noun phrase (henceforth, ). The following are some examples of what a noun phrase can look like. (1) N UVirusesU reproduce by asexual propagation. (2) Adj N Viruses reproduce by Uasexual propagationu. (3) Det N UThe brainu is one of the most complex things in the universe. Determiners are articles ( a, an the ), quantifiers ( all, every, most, each ) and possessive adjectives (my, his, her, and our ). (4) Det Adj N Example: UTheU UviralU UgenomeU contains the "blueprints" for virus replication enciphered in.. Det Adj N (5) PP UThe studyu U human infectious diseasesu is important for health science students. Det N P () (PP) z m

3 (6) S The thing that we are going to talk today is antibiotic resistance. S (7) + Conj Researchers and participants are still in the laboratory. Pharmacists, doctors, nurses and public health officers are discussing how to improve their services. Note: The super - subscripted plus sign on the (i.e. + ) means the number of s before the conjunction can be of any number. And the conjoined can be of any internal structure. For example, the first conjoined consist of only a single noun: pain, the second conjoined consists of an adjective and a noun: physical disability and the last conjoined consist of an modified by a sentence ( S) Prepositional Phrases (PP) 1. PP P Mental health is characterized by an ability to deal constructively Uwith realityu. Snake venoms have also been found to possess ingredients Uwith important pharmacological properties. Inflammation is a complex reaction Uin tissues that consists mainly of responses of blood vessels and leukocytes. Note: The after the P can be of any discussed in (1) (7) above.

4 Functions of s s can function as the subject, object of a verb or of a preposition, and modifier to another. Subject of the Sentence 1. Causation is the idea that A causes B. subject Object of the Verb 2. They need to determine the effectiveness of the new drug. verb Object Object of the Preposition 3. They need to determine the effectiveness of the new drug. prep object Modifier of another 4. The country is planning to build Uheart diseaseu research center modifier modifiee Functions of PP Modifier of 6. They need to determine the effectiveness of the new drug. modifier of the effectiveness 7. The doctor inspected Uthe patientu Uwith a stethoscopeu. Modifier of VP modifier of the patient 8. The virus spreads from one person to another quite easily. modifier of VP spreads

5 9. The doctor Uinspected the patientu Uwith a stethoscopeu. modifier of VP inspected the patient III. Medical Roots and affixes. 1. patho suffereing, disease. Examples: pathogen (n.) any agent, esp. a microorganism, able to cause disease pathogenesis (n.) the production or development of a disease; the origin of a disease pathogenic (adj.) producing or causing a disease pathology (n.) the brance of medicine that deals with the nature of disease; any normal variation from a proper condition; conditions, processes or results of a particular disease pathological (adj.) of pathology; of or concerned with diseases; due to or involving disease; governed by a compulsion; compulsive. 2. epi on, upon, Examples: epidemic (adj) prevalent and spreading rapidly among many individual in a community at the same time: said esp. of a serious human contagious disease. (n.) an epidemic disease; the rapid spreading of such a sisease. epidemiology (n.) the branch of medicine that investigates the causes and control of epidemics - all the elements contributing to the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a disease in a population; ecology of a disease. epizoology (n.) the study of epidemic animal diseases 3. logy meaning science, the study of, or theory. Virology (n.) The study of virues and virus diseases epizoology (n.)- the study of epidemic animal diseases epidemiology (n.) the branch of medicine that investigates the causes and control of

6 epidemics - all the elements contributing to the occurennce or nonoccurernce of a disease in a population; ecology of a disease. 4. myco- fungus mycology (n.) the brance of botany dealing with fungi mycoplasma (n.) any of a class of bacteria that lack cell walls and may cause disease, esp. of the joints and lungs, in humans and domestic animals, or maybe pathogenic for plants. mycosis (n.) - the growth of parasitic fungi in any part of the body; a disease caused by such fungi mycotoxin (n.) a toxin produced by a fungus IV. Choose the most appropriate word from the following to fill in the blanks. The words may be used more than once. pathogen, pathogenesis, pathogenic, pathology, pathological, epidemic, epidemiology, epizoology, virology, epizoology, epidemiology, mycology, mycoplasma, mycosis, mycotoxin 1. Highly viruses, such as the H5N1 strain, spread to virtuall all parts of an infected host. 2. One of the best known is aflatoxin. 3. Some language impairments are associated with conditions of the brain. 4. Most women, at least once in their lives, suffer from a yeast infection, also known as vaginal. 5. The Indian government has been accused by WHO of ignoring the country s AIDS. 6. An infectious agent or a is an organism that causes diseases or illnesses in its host. 7. An disease can be very frightening because it may rapidly afflict large numbers of persons. 8. To effectively prevent the spread of the bird flu, we certainly need to fully understand the of the virus causing the disease. 9. Some foodborne illness are caused by molds which produce. 10. How can you believe what he said! He is such a liar!

7 Reading Comprehension Passage I P1 The thing that we are going to talk today is that just because two things occur in relation to each other, it doesn t necessarily mean that they cause each other. Now a correlation is measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and how well either factor predicts the other. The two behaviors here are waiting and browsing your phone. So if you are to put someone in a line to wait for that delicious frozen yogurt, then they are more likely to pull out their phone for browsing the internet because they have time to waste. Now in order to measure the interaction between these two behaviors, we use a statistic measure called the correlation coefficient. And this ranges from negative one to positive one. Waiting in line and using your phone is an example of a positive correlation and this indicates a direct relationship meaning that both these things increase at the same time. The more you spend time in line, the more likely you re going to pull out your phone. A positive correlation falls between zero and positive one on the correlation coefficient with zero meaning that there is no relationship between the two things. And positive one meaning that as one behavior goes up, the other goes up at the same rate. Now a positive correlation doesn t only mean that two things increase at the same time. It can also mean that two things decrease at the same time. Let me give you an example, as temperatures drop outside, people tend to move around less in order to conserve energy. Now both temperature and movement are decreasing together, the important thing to remember here is that things can still decrease and be called a positive correlation because they are decreasing in relation to one another or at the same time. 1. What is P1 mainly about?. 2. What is a positive correlation? 3. Give an example of a positive correlation involving a person s health that shows two things increase together. 4. Give an example of a positive correlation involving a person s health that shows two things decrease together.. P2 Now there is another correlation called a negative correlation. And this indicates an inverse relationship meaning that as one thing increases the other thing decreases. Now this falls on the correlation coefficient between negative 1 and 0, with 0 again meaning no relationship. And negative 1 meaning that one set of scores goes down precisely as one set of scores goes up. Now this is kind of like people on opposite sides of teeter-totter with one person on the low end, the other person would be on the high end. Let s go back to our previous example and say that it s still freezing. See as the temperature drops, you are more likely to turn the heat up in a similar fashion. If it s boiling outside, you are more likely to turn the heat down. See as one thing goes up, the other thing goes down. So what correlations do is they help us predict things.

8 5. What is P2 mainly about? 6. Give an example of a negative correlation involving a person s health The word precisely in P2 is closest in meaning to. a. usually b. exactly c. probably d. rarely P3 If I eat a lot of hamburgers, then it could increase my cholesterol, and that s a prediction. Now the thing that stumps a lot of people is they believe that association proves causation. If I keep eating hamburgers, I will get high cholesterol. But no matter how strong the relationship is, association does not prove causation. Causation is the idea that A causes B. Or if A occurs, then B will occur. It could be eating lots of hamburgers will increase an individual s cholesterol. Or it could be that an individual who has high cholesterol already eats lots of hamburgers. See how the two are flipped? Or there could be a third factor that contributes to A and B. Let s say an individual has a stressful job and it leads to both the high cholesterol and an increased appetite for burgers. So as option 2 and 3 show, we get the same positive correlation between cholesterol and burgers. Even when they re switched around, there is another factor, another factor s introduced. Now a really really really important thing to remember here is association does not prove causation. A correlation may indicate a possibility of a cause and effect relationship, but that s all it can do. 8. What is the main idea of P3? a. Correlation does not mean causation. b. Correlation predicts causation c. Stressful people may like hamburgers. d. Stressful people may have high cholesterol. 9. What does the two in P3 refer to? a. people and high cholesterol b. high cholesterol and eating lots of hamburgers c. people and eating lots of hamburgers d. high cholesterol and a stressful job 10. What is NOT mentioned in P3? a. A stressful job may cause high cholesterol. b. A correlation may have causation relationship. c. An appetite for burgers increases a person s stress. d. Strong relationship between two things means causation.

9 11. Give an example of two variables occurring together which involves a person s health, but they do not cause one another. Tell what could be the third factor that causes them..... P1 There are two major models that can be used in an experimental study: the single blind and double blind placebo-controlled trials, sometimes simply called a double blind trial. However, the best and most reliable form of research is the double-blind study. The purpose of this kind of study is to eliminate the power of suggestion. The double-blind study keeps both researchers and participants in the dark as to who is receiving which treatment. This last part is important because it prevents the researchers from unintentionally tipping off the study participants, or unconsciously biasing their evaluation of the results. P2 A double-blind comparative study is similar to a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, except that instead of placebo, one group receives a standard drug. Therefore, such studies compare a new drug to another that is already known to work. Such studies are especially useful in determining whether a new treatment offers any advantages over an old one. For statistical reasons, they are not quite as good at proving whether a treatment is effective. 1. What is not true of the double-blind study? a. It prevents the power of suggestion. b. It prevents researchers from biasing interpreting the results. c. It prevents researchers from knowing who receives the real treatment. d. It prevents participants from getting to know each other. 2. Which is closest in meaning to trial? a. purpose b. placebo c. study d. kind 3. What is tipping off closest in meaning to? a. giving out information b. receiving a treatment c. biasing evaluation d. studying participants 4. The phrase keeps X in the dark means a. to stop X from participating in the study b. to prevent X from knowing something c. to eliminate X in the double-blind study d. to study X in the double-blind study

10 5. How would a single blind study differ from a double-blind study?. 6. How does a double-blind comparative study differ from a double-blind trial?. 7. Give an example of a single blind non-health study. Why do you think a double-blind is not needed in the study Give an example of a double-blind non-health study. Why do you think a double-blind, rather than single-blind, study, is needed in the study? Adapted from the following sites: Placebo P1 A placebo is anything that seems to be a "real" medical treatment -- but isn't. It could be a pill, a shot, or some other type of "fake" treatment. What all placebos have in common is that they do not contain an active substance meant to affect health. Sometimes a person can have a response to a placebo. The response can be positive or negative. For instance, the person's symptoms may improve. Or the person may have what appears to be side effects from the treatment. These responses are known as the "placebo effect." 1. What is the main idea of P1? a. how a placebo is prepared b. why a placebo works c. what a placebo is d. when a placebo is used. 2. What is a placebo? a. A side effect of the treatment. b. An improvement of symptom. c. A pill of fake treatment.

11 d. An inactive response to drugs. 3. Which is a placebo effect? a. A nonresponse to a placebo. b. An appearance of a symptom c. A treatment that affects symptoms d. A symptom improvement from a fake drug P2 Researchers use placebos during studies to help them understand what effect a new drug or some other treatment might have on a particular condition. For instance, some people in a study might be given a new drug to lower cholesterol. Others would get a placebo. None of the people in the study will know if they got the real treatment or the placebo. Researchers then compare the effects of the drug and the placebo on the people in the study. That way, they can determine the effectiveness of the new drug and check for side effects. Studies show that placebos can have an effect on conditions such as: depression, pain, sleep disorders, irritable bowel syndrome, and menopause. 4. What is the main idea of P2? a. how and when placeboes work b. who and what placeboes are used for c. why and how placeboes are used d. where and when placeboes work 5. What does That way in P2 refer to? a. comparing the effects of the drug and the placebo on the people in the study b. determining the effectiveness of the new drug and check for side effects c. showing that placebos can have an effect on conditions d. knowing if they got the real treatment or the placebo P3 Experts also say that there is a relationship between how strongly a person expects to have results and whether or not results occur. The stronger the feeling, the more likely it is that a person will experience positive effects. There may be a profound effect due to the interaction between a patient and health care provider. The same appears to be true for negative effects. If people expect to have side effects such as headaches, nausea, or drowsiness, there is a greater chance of those reactions happening. 6. What is the main idea of P3? a. A person s expectation from experts b. A person s expectation of positive effects c. A relationship between placebo effects and beliefs. d. A relationship between a patient and health care provider. 7. What does those reactions refers to?

12 P4 The fact that the placebo effect is tied to expectations doesn't make it imaginary or fake. Some studies show that there are actual physical changes that occur with the placebo effect. For instance, some studies have documented an increase in the body's production of endorphins, one of the body's natural pain relievers. 8. What is the passage mainly about?.. 9. Why does the author mention the body s production of endorphins in P4?. 10. Summarize the passage in 5-6 sentences... Adapted from