Crew Resource Management

Transcription

1 Crew Resource Management INTRODUCTION Crew Resource Management Course Objectives Crew Resource Management Table of Contents STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AND LINE ORIENTED FLIGHT TRAINING Standard Operating Procedures Line Oriented Flight Training COMMUNICATION Communication Definitions Key Facts About the Way We Communicate Modes of Communication Communication Process BEHAVIORAL STYLES Behavioral Styles FATIGUE STRESS MANAGEMENT Attitudes SITUATIONAL AWARENESS Elements of Situational Awareness Clues to the Loss of Situational Awareness Maintaining Situational Awareness Summary LEADERSHIP What makes a Leader? Leadership Skills Analytical Decision Making Intuitive Decision Making The Fundamentals of Crew Resource Management CRM Skills 1

2 PROFESSIONALISM Definitions Law and Ethics Safety is an Attitude INTRODUCTION Crew Resource Management This Crew Resource Management (CRM) course has been developed by Transport Canada, System Safety, Western Region. CRM is a concept involving three main elements: Indoctrination and awareness training Practice, feedback and recurrent training Continuing reinforcement This CRM course and manual utilize plain language in a non-technical format. Individual participation is imperative to gain maximum benefit from the course. The key to the success of a CRM program is the mutual respect and confidence that is created among crew members which fosters an environment that is conducive to openness, candor, and constructive critique. The result is a more professional performance due to the synergy that is achieved in the cockpit, thereby decreasing the risk of an accident or incident. Course Objectives To gain a greater awareness of the concepts, philosophies and objectives of resource management training To enable participants to utilize more resource management tools To enhance participants' abilities to utilize their most valuable resource - THEMSELVES Crew Resource Management For better recognition and utilization of all available resources, information, equipment and people to achieve safe and efficient flight operations. 2

3 Aircraft equipment, operating procedures, navigation methods, and airworthiness safety standards have steadily improved over the last few decades. This may lead you to determine that as a result, the accident rate has improved. It has not. Accident investigations show that approximately 70% of air carrier incidents and accidents have been caused by the failure of flight crews to make use of readily available "resources." The concept called "Crew Resource Management" is intended to address the problem of pilots making flawed decisions or acting inappropriately because they may not have had all the information available to them at the time to complete a proper situational assessment. In many accident investigations it was found that the information was available to the pilot-in-command but tragically, it was not utilized. The industry must address this high percentage of human factors performance errors and correct the dichotomy that may still exist in many cockpits today. This course is intended to be a "self-awareness" program. The objective of this course is to explain the history and basic concepts of CRM, and how these concepts can improve your effective communication and leadership skills and decrease the risk of an accident or incident. History of CRM From the beginning of our flying careers, pilot training programs have focused almost exclusively on the technical aspects of flying and on an individual pilot's performance and problem solving capabilities. But accident statistics show that many problems encountered by flight crews have very little to do with the technical aspects of flying. It would appear that to improve the safety of flight, the priorities must shift from operating independently in a multicrew environment to problem solving using all available resources. CRM concepts are not designed to challenge the authority of the captain or the high degree of technical proficiency essential for safe and efficient flight operations. But a high degree of technical proficiency alone cannot guarantee safe operations. Studies have shown that marrying technical proficiency with effective crew co-ordination will provide the best opportunity for a successful flight. Defining CRM CRM refers to the effective use of all available resources. These resources are divided into four broad categories - people, machinery, fuel/time and information. CRM is designed to optimize the human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities. These activities include team building and maintenance, information transfer, problem solving, decision making, maintaining situational awareness and dealing with automated systems. CRM training is not limited to multi-crew pilots. Bear in mind that CRM is a concept, affecting the way you think and the way you act. 3

4 It is intended to heighten attitudes and behaviour, not to change personalities. Pilots flying single-pilot, flight dispatchers, flight attendants or cabin medical attendants, maintenance personnel and air traffic controllers can all benefit from CRM training. CRM Synergy The acceptance of CRM concepts has been shown to provide synergy, which is the combined effect of teamwork in the cockpit which exceeds the sum of individual actions. The results of cockpit synergy would be the mathematical equivalent of 1+1=3. Pilots must have training, practice and feedback, and continuing CRM reinforcement for the concept to be effective. It is unrealistic to expect a short training exercise to reverse years of performance programming. Management support of individuals who attempt to act in accordance with learned CRM principles will help its success. CRM practices should also be incorporated into flight operations manuals and standard operating procedures to provide crews with necessary policy and procedures guidance. CRM Skills ICAO has identified six major areas that should be included in CRM training: Communication/interpersonal skills Specific skills associated with good communication practices include such items as polite assertiveness and participation, active listening and feedback. Polite assertiveness is a skill frequently ignored in communications training but vital to a healthy cockpit. In order to improve the communication channel, cultural influences must be taken into account as well as factors such as rank, age, and crew position, all of which can create communication barriers in the cockpit. For example, a pilot-in-command may ordinarily be open to communication, but at times could be temporarily unable to receive information or comprehend situations. This partial or total incapacitation should be identified and addressed by the other crew member. Other crew members must be aware of the importance of the information they hold and have a strong feeling of self-value. A crew member's failing to communicate important data constitutes a failure to discharge individual responsibility. The pilot-in-command must constantly emphasize this responsibility to other crew members. 4

5 Situational Awareness Situational awareness refers to one's ability to accurately perceive what is going on in the cockpit and outside the aircraft. It further extends to the planning of several solutions for any emergency situation which could occur in the immediate future. Maintaining a state of awareness of one's situation is a complex process, greatly motivated by the understanding that one's perception of reality sometimes differs from reality itself. This awareness should promote on-going questioning, cross-checking, and refinement of one's perception. Constant and conscious monitoring of the situation is required. Problem-solving / Decision-making / Judgement These three topics are broad in spectrum, and can interrelate with each other or other skills areas. One may consider problem-solving as a cycle of events beginning with information input and ending with making a final decision. During the phase in which information is requested and offered, some conflicting points of view or differences of opinion may be represented. The concept of "legitimate avenue of dissent" is an important vehicle for clearing the air, maintaining lines of communication and maintaining self-image. Skills in resolving conflicts are therefore especially appropriate at this time. All decisions must come from the pilot-in-command and supported by all crew members. The team will fail if command authority is not acknowledged at all times. The inflight, immediate post-decision review is also a vital concept for promoting good decision-making. Leadership/"followership" In this area, there is clear recognition that the command role carries a special responsibility. The pilot-in-command is responsible for accessing and managing all resources that are available and pertinent for the safe completion of a flight. This process will ensure that informed decisions are made and if required, specific duties delegated. Similarly, every non-command crew member is responsible for actively contributing to the team effort, for monitoring changes in the situation, and for being assertive when necessary. This is especially important when flying with a pilot-in-command who does not subscribe to the CRM concept. Stress Management Any kind of emergency situation generates stress, but there is also the residual stress (both physical and mental) that a crew member might bring to a situation which may be difficult for others to detect. A crew member's over-all fitness to fly may be affected because of fatigue, mental or emotional problems, to the extent that other crew members should be on the alert for any performance decline or subtle incapacitation. 5

6 Skills related to stress management refer not only to one's ability to perceive and accommodate the stress in others but primarily to anticipate, recognize and cope with one's own stress as well. This would include psychological stresses such as those related to crew scheduling, anxiety over check-rides, career and achievement stresses, inter-personal problems with either the cabin crew or other flight crew member, as well as the home and work interface, including related domestic problems. It would also include so-called life event stresses, such as those related to the death of a spouse, divorce or marriage, all of which represent major life changes. Several operators are attempting to alleviate stress problems by encouraging open and frank communications between operational management and flight crew members, and by viewing stress as part of the "fitness to fly" concept. Management must be open to understanding stress problems and to encourage managers and other non-crew personnel to attend CRM training. Critique Skills of critique generally refer to the ability to analyze a future, current, or past plan of action. Techniques for accomplishing critique vary according to the availability of time, resources, and information. Three basis types of critique are distinguished: pre-mission analysis and planning on-going review as part of the in-flight problem solving process post-mission debriefing All three are important but can sometimes be overlooked in either flight operations or during instruction. The art of critique is not to dwell on the negative, but to accentuate the positive and to encourage participation from the team. Challenges of CRM Pilots are conditioned to believe that they are automated, performance-oriented beings, capable of amazing feats. The fact that pilots are now encouraged to acknowledge that they have feelings, or to admit that they might be in a bad mood, seems to conflict with the very fibre of the pilot's existence. To admit any "weakness" may appear to show a loss of confidence contrary to the image of what a pilot is expected to portray. But the fact of the matter is, pilots are human. Humans are not perfect 100% of the time, as we have seen in many accident cases. As a pilot, the ability to tap another crew member as an available resource will help to compensate for the subjective human factors performance errors involved in decision making and risk management. Managing the crew resources will help to ensure that all decisions and actions are in accordance with safe flight practices, and reduce the risk of an incident or accident. 6

7 What CRM IS and IS NOT CRM IS A comprehensive system for improving crew performance A process addressing the entire crew and other related staff A system that can be extended to all forms of air crew training A concentration on crew member attitudes and behaviors and their impact on safety An opportunity for individuals to examine their behavior and make individual decisions on how to improve cockpit teamwork A utilization of the crew as the unit of training Active participation training that focuses on safety improvement Is self-convincing CRM IS NOT A quick fix that can be implemented overnight A training program administered to only a few specialized or "fix-it" cases A system that occurs independent of other ongoing training activities A psychological assessment or personality profile A system where crews are given a specific prescription of how to work with others on the flight deck Another form of individually-centred crew training A passive lecture-style classroom course An attempt by management to dictate cockpit behavior Five Elements of CRM Inquiry Inquiry is every crew member's right and responsibility. Inquiry is a mode of behaviour that causes an individual to question, scrutinize, and investigate all that is happening. It is curiosity, skepticism, interest; it maximizes learning and awareness at all times and ensures larger gains in knowledge from each experience. Inquiry is the opposite of complacency. Crew members who practice inquiry, question or investigate what others are doing, believing or proposing. In addition, they recognize that their own knowledge, beliefs, and actions could be wrong and are continuously challenging them. The undetected problem presents a unique difficulty for flight crews. Active inquiry is an approach that stimulates early detection and definition of problems by helping crew members sense a discrepancy between what is and what should be occurring. 7

8 Inquiry is also useful in sorting out what is going on from what appears to be going on. Nothing is taken for granted. Human errors are reduced by exposing and correcting them at an early stage. Advocacy The essence of advocacy involves a crew member accepting the obligation to speak out in support of a course of action different from that is currently being planned or followed. At the same time, it is listening to viewpoints that may be contradictory to one's own. An inviting question such as "Does anyone have a problem with...?" Encourages others to bring up alternatives that might be considered before a decision or course of action is finalized. Similarly, the phrase "I have a problem with that..." Signals to other crew members that a reservation exists that merits examination. This kind of concern is constructive questioning that represents a respect and a desire to support authority, rather than a resentment of authority. Verbal communication in a forthright and relevant manner increases the likelihood that information will be understood and accepted; then problems can be anticipated and dealt with soundly. Advocacy is the obligation to support a position firmly, but to also respond to a sound alternative when one is put forth. For example, a crew member whose own proposed action has proven to be unsound, accepts the sound action without reservation. This acceptance does not detract from the responsibility to remain vigilant and continue to question others thereafter. Conflict Resolution Conflict is inevitable. In fact, it is often beneficial if handled properly and in a constructive manner. Differences in feelings, opinions, thoughts, values, or action (actual or perceived) may lead to disagreement or dispute. Sometimes differences in personality alone can create a source of conflict. A conflict will turn bad when a crew member is unable to cope with giving or receiving inquiry, advocacy or critique constructively. This conflict can polarize crew members to the point that the real problem or issue is not probed. Heated arguments can lead to bitter words or bad feelings and will ultimately effect performance unless the disagreement is brought into the open and resolved. Alternatively, conflict can be transformed into a lively comparison of viewpoints that lead to deeper thinking, better problem definition, and sound solutions. Under these conditions, conflict resolution can provide a basis for mutual understanding and respect which strengthens, rather than erodes, team effectiveness. Conflict resolution which holds the underlying question of who is right is destructive, conflict resolution which is focused on the question of what is right is constructive. 8

9 Decision Making Many types of decisions are made during the course of the flight. Some decisions of high quality can be made singularly by one member of the crew; other decisions are of such complexity or importance that the inputs from more than one crew member, or from an outside source, are necessary to ensure higher quality decisions. When all information is resourced and analyzed, the likelihood is increased that crew members become aware of potential problems they otherwise would not have appreciated, thus can take steps to deal with them in a sound way. In no way does the consideration of all appropriate resources in the decision making process diminish the ultimate authority of the Captain. When decisions are made in this optimum manner based on a maximum of information, there exists a high potential for success, respect among crew members and commitment to full support in implementing the decision. Critique Critique - used in the context of CRM - refers to discussions among crew members regarding the conduct of the flight. It begins in the planning phase, continues throughout the flight, and concludes in a post-flight debriefing. Properly utilized, critique can be initiated by any crew member at any time when he/she believes it will be helpful to the safety and efficiency of the operation. It is totally separate from the evaluation involved with line checks and proficiency checks. Critique is essential in producing useful future insights. When frank discussions are held among crew members, misunderstandings and errors in perception can be clarified and resolved, and conflict can be dealt with before serious problems arise. Problems in the Cockpit Lack of support - where one crew member fails to back up another during a high workload situation Standard Operating Procedures ignored -where the Captain or crew fail to complete a checklist when under time or other pressures Stress problems - where a crew experiences difficult in adapting to unusual or emergency situations Judgment problems - where management of priorities and cockpit distractions distort the judgment process Emotional problems - where aggression or extreme submissiveness in the cockpit affect personal relations; or where there is a carryover of domestic worries or job conflict Get-Home-Itis - where failure to divert or in making a go-around decision occurs Management pressure - where there is a deferral to management the authority to expedite departure before the crew is sufficiently prepared Discipline problems - where corners are cut or where there is inadequate control of operations in the cockpit 9

10 Communication problems - where there are misunderstandings or non-adherence to sterile cockpit rule Management Skills Required To combat some of the human factors related problems identified in the cockpit, management skills must be strengthened and reinforced to reduce or eliminate seemingly needless aviation accidents: Use of checklists, SOPs Flight planning and progress monitoring Management of resources Judgment and decision making Communication Managing people Stress Management Workload assessment and time management Recognition and management of distractions STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AND LINE ORIENTED FLIGHT TRAINING Standard Operating Procedures Standard Operating Procedures (sops) are designed to enhance safety, to assist the flight crews to manage risk and to ensure consistency in the cockpit. Consider them guidelines as to who-doeswhat-and-when. At all times, these procedures should encourage effective communication and teamwork in the cockpit. Sops can be either general in nature or aircraft specific. Although aviation companies have a certain amount of latitude when creating their sops, under no circumstances should they contravene aviation regulations or the procedures outlined in the aircraft flight manuals. Included in the sops should be a section on normal procedures, and it is to be considered an enhancement of the aircraft flight manual. These normal procedures include all aspects of day-to- 10

11 day flight, including the start-up and normal procedures checklist, the take-off briefing, goaround procedures, IFR approaches, etc. A section of the sops should be dedicated to emergency procedures, with the expanded version of the emergency procedures checklists. Again, this should compliment the aircraft flight manual's emergency section and streamline procedures removing any ambiguity. Another section can include aircraft landing and take off distances charts, a JBI chart, or any other references that the flight crews may require. Sops should be reviewed periodically and amended to maintain their relevance in changing times or aircraft fleet. Care should be taken not to include non-applicable items, as personnel may then tend to view the whole package as being irrelevant. Sops should be written in simple terminology leaving no room for subjective interpretation. There are definite safety benefits from the use of Standard Operating Procedures but they must first be adopted by the flight crews. Company check pilots should monitor for crew adherence to the sops. Finally, there is no substitute for good judgment, and decisions made in the cockpit should be supported by management. Standard Phraseology Standardization of crew communications is desired to increase the efficiency of crew coordination during times of high crew workload such as take off, emergency conditions, instrument approaches, landings and in detecting partial incapacitation. The normal call-outs are one example of standard phraseology used to convey vital information with a minimum number of words that have an exact meaning to all crew members. Some other recommended words and phrases could be: Thrust Settings "Set Take off thrust" "Set go-around thrust" "Set maximum continuous thrust" "Set climb thrust" Flap Settings "Flaps up" "Flaps five" "Flaps fifteen" "Flaps thirty" "Set cruise thrust" 11

12 Standard Call-outs Objective Ensure that all crew members are aware of airplane altitude, position and instrument indications. Casual and nonessential conversation can be distracting and may interfere with normal communications, thereby reducing crew efficiency and alertness to the task at hand, i.e. The approach and landing. Call-outs The pilot not flying (PNF) will accomplish the appropriate call-out based on instrument indications or observations for the condition indicated on the chart on the following page. The pilot flying (PF) will verify the condition/location from their instruments and acknowledge. If the pilot not flying does not make the required call-out, the pilot flying should make it. Crew Concept One of the basic fundamentals of the "Crew Concept" is that each crew member must be able to supplement or act as a back-up for another crew member. Proper adherence to standard call-outs will stimulate more meaningful and standardized crew communications and provide for early detection of crew member incapacitation during critical phases of flight. Standard Call-outs Examples CLIMB AND DESCENT CONDITION/LOCATION Approaching; Transition alt./flt lvl CALL-OUT (PNF) "Transition,Altimeters reset" 1,000 ft. Abv/blo assigned "1,000 to level off" altitude/flt lvl DESCENT 10,000 ft (reduce airspeed) "10,000" 1,000 ft abv initial app. Alt. "1,000 above initial" APPROACH First positive motion of Localizer First positive motion of Glide Slope Final fix inbound (altimeter, instrument and flag crosscheck) "Localizer alive" "Glide Slope alive" "Outer Marker... Etc., Time,,feet altimeters & instruments crosschecked" 12

13 500 ft abv field elevation "500 ft, alt & inst. Crosschecked" 500 ft & blo on Final Approach "Airspeed" & profile deviations 100 ft abv DH "100 to minimums" 100 ft abv MDA "100 to MDA" Reaching DH or MDA/MAP "Minimums" & Visual Reference or "No Contact" Checking the Checklist Checklists were created so that an aircraft can be operated by a pilot safely. It is ironic that checklists are designed to cover omissions and oversights of pilots, but the built in redundancy and repetition found in checklists can also make pilots complacent. This complacency is a breeding ground for errors and negligence. This catch-22 situation should be addressed to make checklists more efficient so that they can be utilized as designed. These suggestions may help to revamp your checklists and make them more "user-friendly." Consult with the flight crews that fly on a regular basis to determine what changes should be made to improve efficiency. Unnecessary items should be removed to avoid skipping over checklist items and increasing the risk of omitting a critical check. For example, the "coffee pot" check on a converted cargo aircraft can be substituted with "all switches" for brevity. The chances are better that you will not miss the "boost pumps on" check if the items you are used to seeing on the checklist are all pertinent. If an item on the checklist is useful on occasion, it should be noted as "deferred" during the checklist execution, rather than purposely skipped. The built-in redundancy in a checklist is for a specific purpose. The so-called "killer items" on the checklist should be repeated twice, in different areas of the checklist in case they be inadvertently missed. For example, if the aircraft flap setting is important to take off performance, the flap check should be included in both the taxi checklist and again in the before take-off checklist. Items that are key to the safety of your flight, should be in the "challenge and response" format. The pilot-not-flying must monitor the pilot flying, and confirmation of the checks through the challenge and response method is an effective way to verify compliance. It is also important that both flight crew members have an awareness as to the state of the aircraft, i.e. What switches are on or off. Non-critical items, such as the environmental setting or noting the take-off time, might be better off completed by the pilot-not-flying. Once a checklist is complete, the pilot-not-flying must advise the pilot-flying and announce "... Checklist complete." 13

14 The checklists should be clear, easy to read plastic laminated sheets and easily accessible in the cockpit. The emergency checklist should be uniquely marked so it can be quickly located. It is also suggested that crews review an "emergency du jour" from this checklist. Checklists were created to eliminate errors of omission in the cockpit. Involving the flight crew and revising a tired checklist will result in a safer and more efficient cockpit. Crew Briefings A crew briefing is not limited to reviewing an instrument approach procedure, or detailing aspects of the flight to the flight attendants. In fact, the cockpit crew briefing is an important tool for improving safety during any critical phase of flight. In a somewhat modified form, it's of use to the single-pilot flight operation as well. In the simplest terms, your crew briefing is the verbalization of your plan for executing a critical phase of your flight. Given a normal transport flight ops profile, most would agree takeoffs and departures, as well as descents and arrivals, constitute critical flight segments. For the novice briefer, verbalizing the elements of these two major events is an excellent beginning. As you would expect, you will not easily brief something you have not planned. Also one must avoid becoming too ritualistic or institutionalized with their crew briefing. Conducting appropriate and meaningful briefing enhances individual as well as crew performance. It is a learned art born of practice in identifying the key elements of every departure and arrival conveyed with clarity and brevity. A Brief Beginning The takeoff and departure briefing is not as common as the arrival brief, yet it's no less critical. In fact, given the pilot flying/pilot not flying discipline so widely accepted today, the departure crew briefing goes far to establish or clarify what's expected of crew members in their respective roles. This is the opportune time for the captain to establish or promote the atmosphere of enlightened leadership within the confines of the workplace. Even if the captain is the pilot not flying on a particular leg, the responsibilities of command dictate that he or she include amendments or modifications to the pilot flying's crew briefing should it be warranted. A typical takeoff and departure crew briefing should include: Weather and related precautions Any special modification to the standard takeoff and initial climb profile Initial routing via designated SID and/or vector fix Initial clearance altitude including the transition altitude Com and nav radio configuration to include the assigned transponder code Contingencies for critical emergency situations 14

15 Weather conditions for your takeoff and departure should be part of every briefing. Special procedural precautions such as the use of engine or wing anti-ice, modified takeoff computations, or restrictions on the applicability of using a reduced power takeoff are examples of weather-related modifications best reviewed before getting involved in the actual activity. Include in your briefing any special noise abatement takeoff and climb profile to be flown, a high terrain/obstacle clearance maneuver to execute, or a possible windshear complication. When briefing the departure climb, either by reference to a published SID or radar vector clearance, be sure to emphasize your initial clearance altitude. The nav radio setup should be noted, crossing restrictions discussed, and any special switchology or pilot not flying duties clarified. Many different emergencies are possible during any takeoff and climb out. Reviewing the basics of "who will do what" in the event of a reject or engine failure are commonly briefed. Attempting to address further emergencies could run your brief too long to be effective. Once cleared onto the runway for take-off, the pilot flying should re-brief (1) the initial heading and/or route to be flown, (2) the initial clearance altitude, and (3) confirm the takeoff flap settings and respective takeoff flap settings and takeoff speeds. Conducting this last chance minibrief will focus the crew on the details at hand. Pilot workload increases relative to your distance from touchdown. For this reason, the best time to conduct the approach briefing is before or soon after, commencing your initial descent. This scheduling may not work in some situations but the intent is to avoid trying to brief and fly at the same time. Neither is done well. As your briefings become more polished, you will be better able to accommodate last-minute alterations like a runway change However, if what you have briefed is rendered totally inappropriate, make the time to do an approach and landing briefing that's relative to your actual situation. Mindful of the intent to promote crew coordination and enhance communication with your fellow pilots, the content of the approach and landing briefing should contain no more than 8 to 10 key elements beyond a common understanding of the current weather conditions; Name and effective date of the instrument approach procedure Minimum sector altitudes(s) Airport elevation Initial approach maneuver and respective minimum altitude(s) Final approach course and defining navaid Final approach fix minimum altitude Applicable approach minimums (DH or MDA) MAP for the non-precision approach Published missed approach procedure Approach lighting and runway information 15

16 It is imperative to clarify the name and currency of the instrument approach procedure (IAP) to be used. It is a good idea to state the airport elevation as an overall awareness factor. If you anticipate radar vectors to intercept the final approach course, it is important to brief the published minimum final approach fix (FAF) altitude. In the absence of radar vectors to final, your briefing must be expanded to include depicted transitions, procedure turns, arcs or other published routings and the associated minimum altitudes. Focus attention on the frequency of the defining navaid as well as the published final approach course. You may want to brief the pilot not flying on a special sequence for tuning and identifying navaids specific to your radios. All crew members must know the decision height(dh) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) and the advisory minimum visibility. For non-precision iaps, step-down fixes and the corresponding minimum descent altitudes and missed approach point (MAP) should be called out by the pilot not flying. Brief the timing or DME fix for every IAP as a means of identifying the MAP. Granted, the MAP for the ILS is the DH, but should you lose the glideslope signal inside the FAF, you have the option to descend to the LOC minimums and a better reference for the location of the MAP. In the absence of ATC intervention, your clearance for the published IAP includes a clearance for the published missed approach procedure. It is good practice to emphasize the initial route and altitude in your briefing. Should nav radio changes be required, these are best included as pilot not flying duties. And if the missed approach procedure culminates in a holding pattern, the type of entry is worth mentioning. Do not be too brief Do not complete your briefing with just the approach. The airport chart contains an abundance of valuable information. If you are faced with conducting an approach and making a landing in IMC, or at night, or in particularly low-visibility situations, briefing the type of approach light system available is critical. Whoever is not monitoring the instruments will be looking for the lights, so it is appropriate to know what to look for. The lighting codes are deciphered in the Canada Flight Supplement and the Canada Air Pilot. Also useable runway length and width are worthy parts of every briefing you make. A Brief Example Departure Brief "Let's plan on runway three five for takeoff. We're cleared via the Mccoy two and the Colliers Transition. We'll use our standard takeoff and departure climb profile. With these rain showers and wet runway, I prefer to use full power for takeoff. We'll maintain the assigned heading and climb to cross the Orlando one one five at or above 2600 and the zero niner zero at or above Our initial altitude is 5000 and that's set in the altitude alerter. I've got Orlando tuned and 16

17 three three eight in my window. You're tuned to Orlando and please monitor those radials. We should have no problem meeting the crossing restrictions. Let's stay with the number one comm for ATC and our squawk is set on "As far as emergencies go, if something happens prior to V1, i'll stop the aircraft, you call the tower and i'll get on the PA after we've stopped. Beyond V1, we go. I'll continue to fly. Let's not do anything in a hurry. I'll call for the checklists and let's stick with our procedures. If possible, i'll use the autopilot and get in the loop ASAP. Any time you have a question about anything we're doing or not doing, please ask. Any questions? Comments? Arrival Brief "Let's plan on the Pueblo two six right ILS and the glideslope is out of service. The effective date on my chart is March 5th. The MSA's are 7700 to the northwest and 7100 to the southeast of Aruba with an airport elevation of forty seven twenty six. Since we're cleared via Huner and the 10 DME arc, let's keep both nav radios on Pueblo and tune the ADF to Aruba. Once we're on the arc, i'll descend to As we near the Pueblo zero eight niner radial tune and identify my nav radio on one zero eight point three and i'll set two fifty seven in my window. Call me passing the zero eight niner on your CDI and once i've turned to intercept the localizer, come on over on your nav radio and we'll switch the RMI's to ADF. Established on the localizer, i'll descend to the final approach fix altitude of Our minimums are five thousand sixty feet and one and a quarter mile. Let's time the approach for two minutes and forty five seconds and call me two minutes and five seconds after we pass Aruba. "The missed approach is a climb to 7000 direct to Mertz. If we go around, tune Mertz on the ADF. Let's keep approach flaps and i'll use a hundred and sixty knots max. We'll plan on a teardrop entry to that holding pattern. "Runway two six right has hirls, reils and VASI on the left side. That's not much in the way of lighting. We'll likely see the reils first. That runway is over ten thousand feet long and 150 feet wide. Any questions? Suggestions? Line Oriented Flight Training In analyzing airline accidents over the last 20 years, it was evident that approximately 70% occurred as a direct result of inadequacies related to crew coordination, workload management and decision making. It was also revealed that the causes of these accidents were unrelated to the way pilots were being trained. They occurred not as the result of a lack of individual technical proficiency in the cockpit, but because of a human failure. The concept of crew resource management (CRM) was developed to address the deficiencies of human behaviour in the cockpit. In conjunction, line oriented flight training (LOFT) began, and allowed flight crews to combine their technical proficiency and CRM theory into practical skills in simulator scenarios. As a result, flight crews become better problem-solvers and resource managers in an effort to reduce the risk of an incident or accident. 17

18 The Benefits of LOFT The objective of LOFT is to assess how a flight crew manages the operation of an "aircraft" during a situation which is outside the parameters of what would be considered normal operations. It is not an emergency situation per se, where the flight crew reverts to the predetermined response of an emergency procedure. Instead it is a series of events impacting on the conduct of the flight that must be addressed by the crew and for which there is no one correct solution. Flight crews are required to demonstrate how they manage the operational environment and process information available within the irregularity. The goal for the flight crew is to make a series of low-risk, safe operational decisions resulting in the successful termination of the exercise - normally a safe landing. Spin-off benefits of LOFT include the validation of company training. Any weak areas in flight crew training or those that require further emphasis are exposed. Standard Operating Procedures (sops) can be assessed for their effectiveness and adaptation into the cockpit. If a variety of flight crews make similar mistakes, it could be an indication of incorrect or conflicting manuals or procedures. LOFT allows for improved flight crew aircraft transition or pilot upgrade training. Problem Solving in the LOFT Environment Humans have three different ways to solve a problem: Skills-based actions are those actions that can be accomplished with little effort once the basic skill is mastered (such as driving a car) Rules-based actions are those that have well prescribed procedures (such as if X happens, accomplish Y) similar to the flight crew's reaction to an emergency situation. Knowledged-based actions are the ones addressed in LOFT sessions. They are usually the result of an ambiguous situation, or one that does not have clearly prescribed procedures, and offer a variety of options to the flight crew. Because of uncertainty, knowledge-based actions can require considerable time and thought in order to deal with the task. This is where the evaluation of the flight crew's ability to assess all available information takes place. Malfunctions in the LOFT Environment A recent study of NASA's Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) incident reports evaluates how flight crews manage malfunctions in the cockpit. Two types of malfunctions were identified: 18

19 Type A malfunctions were judged to be critical emergencies which triggered "by the book" (skills or rules-based actions) responses by flight crews. Flight crew training and check rides concentrate on the flight crew's ability to handle major aircraft malfunctions. Type B malfunctions are relatively minor, or abnormal. The malfunction resolution procedure is less defined, requiring the flight crews to revert to knowledge-based actions and CRM principles to properly assess and resolve the situation. This may require time-consuming thought, discussion, and trial and error procedures. The danger of a Type B malfunction response is that too much of the crew's time and attention can be diverted from the normal duties involved in safe piloting and a loss of situational awareness can occur (as in the infamous Everglades and Portland accidents.) This is where the evaluation of a flight crew's ability to manage the operational environment takes place. A paradox is introduced - the less serious malfunctions appear more likely to induce flight crew behaviour leading to a loss of situational awareness than do the serious malfunctions. Fixation, distraction, no one flying the aircraft and work overload were found in a number of the ASRS reports, and are of particular concern because they have been identified in many fatal aircraft accidents. Flight crew training to prevent the loss of situational awareness must be addressed to reduce the 70% of aviation accidents that occur as a result of a human failure. Training to Prevent the Loss of Situational Awareness Resolving Type A malfunctions often occurs quickly, leaving less time for distraction from sops and a loss of situational awareness. When faced with a serious malfunction, the flight crew is likely to be in a state of all around heightened awareness, referring to an emergency procedure checklist or memory items. The loss of situational awareness is less likely to enter the error chain. Resolution of Type B malfunctions pose a risk to flight crews who become absorbed with resolving the malfunction, often at the expense of proper aircraft control. Pilots should always fly the aircraft, assess the situation, take appropriate action, and evaluate the results. Flight crew training should emphasize that an aircraft malfunction can serve as an immediate red flag in warning against the loss of situational awareness. In analyzing the way that flight crews handle Type A and B malfunctions, significant differences have been revealed in altitude and course/heading deviations denoting a possible loss of situational awareness. Of the Type A malfunctions, flight deviations were observed in 23% of the incidents. Of the Type B malfunctions, a loss of situational awareness occurred in varying degrees in 100% of the incidents. Further study of the ASRS reports provided evidence of crews using improper actions, such as not completing a checklist because of haste, using the wrong checklist or activating the wrong 19

20 system control switches. Training should stress crew coordination and emphasize all crew members verify intended actions before initiation. LOFT Event Sets A LOFT scenario comprises a staged event set, a group of related events that are part of the scenario and are inserted into the LOFT session for specific CRM and technical training objectives. The event set is made up of one or more events, including: The event trigger is the condition under which the event is fully activated (example, landing gear malfunction) The distracters are conditions inserted within the even set time frame that are designed to divert the crew's attention from other events that are occurring or are about the occur (example, course change) Supporting events are other events taking place within the event set designed to further CRM and technical training objectives (example, ILS off at destination) Simple events have no further consequences on the conduct of the flight once they have been diagnosed and corrected. Overuse of simple problems or events detracts from LOFT realism. Routine pre-start problems, followed by a start problem, followed by a taxi problem, intrude on the crew's perception that the LOFT is an actual flight. Complex events have ongoing consequences that must be dealt with in flight and cannot be solved by simply selecting and executing an emergency or abnormal checklist. This requires the coordinated actions of all crew members for successful completion, but not to the extent that they induce complete crew failure. Complex event set problems tend to be relatively ambiguous, with no simple corrective solution. The properly designed event set uses both simple and complex events offering a number of possible and reasonable solutions to promote the management of a complex situation. The objective is for the flight crew to make low-risk, safe operational decisions and live with them until landing. One misconception that should be avoided is the belief that LOFT should continuously increase crew workload until the crew becomes overloaded. This is not the purpose or intent of LOFT and can actually help to defeat its effectiveness. LOFT scenarios are most beneficial if they are realistic and straightforward, combining technical skills with CRM theory, in a marriage of simple and complex events. 20

21 Elements of LOFT LOFT is pure training; a learning experience designed to emphasize crew command, coordination, communication and the full management of available resources LOFT is not the venue for assessing the performance of individuals, but the session should not be artificially stress-free. Flight crew members should maintain reasonable performance parameters applicable to their phase of training. If the LOFT facilitator identifies flight crew member performance deficiencies, additional training or instruction would be provided with no stigma or recrimination Scenarios consist of typical daily operations with reasonable and realistic difficulties and emergencies. LOFT scenarios must last long enough for crew traits to become evident and should require CRM skills to be displayed in response to specific circumstances LOFT sessions should not be interrupted, the simulator should not be repositioned or problems repeated. The facilitator should not interfere regardless of developments; mistakes may be made but flight crews should continue since there is no book solution to a LOFT exercise Choose scenarios that can have a wide variety of choices and outcomes. The flight crew must live with their decisions and course of action until the situation is either resolved or the aircraft is back on the ground. Scenarios must be kept current with respect to navigation, communications, regulations, company procedures, manuals and aircraft modifications Pacing and tempo of a scenario must be appropriate to certain factors - location, departure time, phase of flight, communications. Designers should avoid totally filling a flight period, leaving time for lulls and inactivity Scripts should be designed in as much detail as possible in order to simulate the real world. A lack of detail requires the LOFT facilitator to improvise, which takes considerable time away from the observation and evaluation of the flight crew The flight crew is able to quickly appreciate the results of their operational decisions, whether they be positive or negative. An accident should never be inevitable, although it is an outcome that may occur The flight crews will benefit from a facilitator's immediate debriefing session afterwards using video or notes; the flight crew normally is more critical in their own performance assessment Procedures and practices in the flight operations manuals that are frequently misunderstood should be considered for inclusion in a LOFT scenario. Use incident reports from a variety of databases, maintenance difficulty areas identified in line flying, and poor performance areas in simulator proficiency checks and training Event set problems could include: 21

22 Operational problems Pre-flight, dispatch release Hazardous cargo Fuelling operations NOTAMS MEL items Weight and balance Flight crew problems, incapacitation Cabin crew or passenger problems Duty day Alternate airports Low fuel during excessive vectoring Re-routing/amended clearances Air traffic control delayed approaches Similar call signs Environmental problems Weather Wind Temperature Contaminated or closed runways Touchdown zone lighting problems Equipment problems Airborne Autoflight incidents Ground support Nav aids COMMUNICATION Communication True and effective communication occurs when there is a sincere and conscious effort by all parties. 22

23 Definitions Effective communication is being able to communicate your thoughts and feelings in such a way that the other person shares the same meaning you do The imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing or signs The process of exchanging ideas and information by the use of a common system of verbal and non-verbal signals A good example of poor communication is from list of instructions from an aircraft electronics manual as quoted by the Journal of the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators: "The internal guidance system uses deviations to generate corrective commands to fly the aircraft from a position where it is to a position where it isn't." "In the event that the position where it is now is not the same as the position where it originally wasn't, the system will acquire a variation. Variations are beyond the scope of this simple explanation." Key Facts About the Way We Communicate We tend to protect, maintain and enhance ourselves when we communicate We defend against looking ignorant or foolish for fear of ridicule We wish to maintain consistency, we tend to support our opinion even when we suspect that we may not be totally correct We wish to feel valued, worthwhile, belonging and meaningful. This means that we must be acknowledged with respect and trust Reality is second to perception - and our mindset may be very difficult to change People behave according to their perceptions; may not be aware of the level of risk Emotions always take first place, feelings are facts Commitment comes from self-determination, people have their own motivations Modes of Communication Verbal - verbal communication occurs when words are used to communicate, either orally or in writing Non-Verbal - non-verbal communication occurs when body language, eye contact, posture, gestures, touch, silence - anything other than words - is used to communicate Symbolic - symbolic communication occurs as a result of our appearance - clothes, hair, jewelry, make of car, etc. 7% of all communication is accomplished Verbally. 23

24 38% of communication is the result of unconscious signals and readings, such as tone or sound of voice 55% of all communication is achieved through Non-Verbal And Symbolic means (body language.) Communication Process There are four elements in the communication process - the sender, the message, the receiver and the feedback. Human beings acting as the sender or receiver are influenced by many factors - their perceptions, attitudes, values, knowledge, expectations, language skills, experience and their relationship to "the other person." These influences act like filters and can impact on the process of sending and receiving messages. Identifying Assumptions Crew members' clear understanding of cockpit communication is imperative to effective CRM and the ultimate safe operation of the aircraft. Obstacles in the communication process must be identified before they can be addressed and removed. Are you guilty of these assumptions? Assumption #1 Do you assume that the message sent is the same as the message received? Or do you consider that the message sent is rarely the same as the message received? If you operate under the first assumption, you would be correct if you were communicating with a machine. However, almost all communication in organizational settings involves the sending of messages from one human to another. Consequently, the message sent is rarely the same as the message received. Each of us has our own unique set of attitudes, motivations, and perceptual frames and we filter incoming messages to some extent. The message we think we are sending may be substantially different from the message that is received. 24

25 Assumption #2 Do you assume that you communicate only when you consciously choose to do so? Or do you assume that communication is often unplanned and unconscious? The truth is, you cannot not communicate. Simply being in the presence of another person is to communicate with that person, even if you choose not to do so. Such non-verbal stimuli as physical stature, dress and gestures may all serve as unintended messages in the communication process. Furthermore, what others have heard about you and their mental image of you often contradicts the message you hope to transmit. The total message sent incorporates not only the intended messages, but the unintended messages as well. Remember, you cannot not communicate. Assumption #3 Do you assume that meanings are inherent in words? Or do you assume that meanings originate in people? When structuring messages we often assume that the words constituting the message have a fixed, predictable meaning. We are surprised when others do not understand what we believe to be obvious. If we assume that others may attach their own definitions and connotations to words, then we are not so surprised when semantic confusion arises. For example, "impending layoff" may mean "tomorrow I get axed" to one person, and "I wonder who will be cut" to another. Words have a fixed meaning only when one machine communicates with another. Assumption #4 Do you assume that the communication process ceases after the message has been received? Or do you assume that feedback is an essential element of the communication process? Many people assume that the communication process ends when the message reaches its destination. Unfortunately, this assumption ignores the fact that feedback is necessary if the sender is at all concerned about the impact of that message. Has the message been understood? Has action been taken? How should the message have been structured in order to achieve the desired results? Each of these questions can be answered only by feedback from the receiver. Sending the message is only part of the communication process; the other part is being responsive to feedback from the receiver. Assumption #5 Do you assume that if a communication breakdown occurs, it is invariably the recipient's fault? Or do you assume that a communication breakdown may be a function of your own communication style? There is a saying popular among public speaking teachers, "if the audience is falling asleep, someone should wake up the speaker." Is the communication problem with the sender's behaviour rather than with the receiver's behaviour? How can the message best be adapted to the receiver's attitudes, motivations and perceptual frame? 25

26 Assumption #6 Do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with communication hardware? Or do you assume that most communication problems in your organization could be prevented with communications software? Hardware includes gadgets, gimmicks, procedures and techniques designed to facilitate information exchange. For example, information routing slips, suggestion boxes, and periodic feedback sessions are types of communication hardware. Software includes the assumptions, attitudes and knowledge you have about the communication process. After analyzing the six common assumptions you have concluded that effective communication does not just happen, you have taken the first step in changing your own communication style. If you have concluded that effective communication requires concerted effort, you have taken the next step. "The wonder is not that we communicate so well the wonder is that we communicate at all." Samuel Johnson Essential Verbal Communication Skills in CRM Communication can affect the safety of the operation. Using five aspects of effective verbal communication will assist crew members to communicate in a clear and precise manner. Inquiry: Good decisions are based on the quality of information that is assessed. In the cockpit environment we scan instruments to gain information. In varying degrees, the same seeking of information from flight crew, cabin crew, dispatch and ATC should also be brought under consideration when making complex cockpit decisions. One drawback of asking questions in the cockpit is the fear of embarrassment. Clarification of an action or intended action is a right among crew members. Advocacy: Advocacy is the clear stating of one's position, even if it is contrary to the accepted position. Should a crew member disagree with an action or an intended action, it is the crew member's responsibility to advocate their position. Advocacy is also the attitude of an individual accepting another crew member's perspective and rationalizing the different points of view for the best operational decision. Listening: The art of listening appears to be a reoccurring failure in many accident reports. Active listening is an action, it is not a passive function. It requires the listener to actively inquire and respond, confirm to the transmitter that the message has been received and understood. Conflict Resolution: If crew members are effectively advocating their positions, eventually there will be a conflict of opinion. An effective resolution process will help the flight crew to operate efficiently. Conflict can be constructive if cockpit issues are dealt with rationally. Problems may arise when the conflict becomes external to the task at hand. Outside issues should be deferred until another time while the crew deals with the task at hand. 26

27 Critique: Proper critique is an important element of the successful operation of flight. It begins in pre-flight, continues during the operation of the flight and ends in a post flight debriefing. Critique is an analysis of events, past or future. It is an impersonal survey of how the operation can be improved. All crew members' input to the critique process will improve total crew performance and ultimately improve the safety and efficiency of the operation. Active Listening The active listener attends to the words and projects their mind into that of the speaker, so that they can align their thoughts and feelings more closely to those of the speaker. Active listening consists of the following two skills: Non-Verbal - Attending (to build and maintain rapport) Face the speaker, smile, look relaxed Maintain eye contact Encourage the other to speak Verbal - Questions A. Closed Questions (for short answers) Restrict the range of possible responses Useful in getting specific information quickly Improper use can make a person feel like hey are being interrogated Example: How many duty managers are there? How long are your shifts? B. Open-Ended Questions (for long answers) Allows the person a lot of freedom of response Useful for identifying attitudes and beliefs Can be quite time consuming Example: What is your observation on the pilot's techniques in this area? Which other areas would you like to draw our attention to? C. Probe Questions (for more information) 27

28 Ask the person to clarify or elaborate Can be verbal or non-verbal Example: Tell me more about that? I see...how did it work out? D. Paraphrasing (to show understanding and encouragement) Putting the other person's ideas or feeling into your own words Example: So, if I understand correctly, you've outlined two problems; double exits and the lack of a stop bar on the runway Active Listening Is: The genuine desire to understand another person's perception Listening and expressing - understanding of what another person has said Sensitivity to another's thoughts and feelings Active Listening Is Not: Passive or token Advice given Agreement or disagreement Judgmental or critical Argumentative The Art of Effective Listening Being an effective listener takes practice and a sincere effort on behalf of the listener. Problems in effective listening are: We speak at approximately 125 words per minute We have the capacity to listen at 900 words per minute Our brain spends this excess time: Pre-planning (anticipation) - preoccupation with formulating a response and not listening to what the sender is saying 28

29 Detouring (wandering) - waiting for a key word and when it comes up, take the conversation into another area of interest Debating - playing the devil's advocate; regardless of what was said, they take the opposite point of view Tuning Out - when a message has been heard repeatedly, after a while the receiver does not listen because it is felt that the message is not important The effective listener is: Caring Trustworthy with integrity Accepting Lets you talk Focuses on thoughts and feelings Constructive, focuses on problem solving, not blame Encourages self-determination Is capable of active listening Listen to More than Words Effective listening takes into consideration all aspects of communication - verbal, non-verbal and symbolic. For pilots, most communication takes place in the cockpit. This environment is ripe for communication error and misunderstandings because words exclusively represents just 7% of total communication. The communication process can be enhanced by an additional 38% by paying particular attention to the individual's speech characteristics: Rate of speech Is the individual speaking quickly or slowly? Generally, people speak more quickly when they are excited, angry or upset. Speaking slowly generally suggests calmness and control Inflection Which words does the individual emphasize? Inflections can help indicate what is most important to the individual Tone of Voice Is the individual's voice loud or soft, harsh or smooth? Tone of voice can help to determine the individual's emotional state. It can be critical in determining the stress level of other crew members Critique Critique is an efficiency or performance analysis of future, current or past events. All crew members should be encouraged to give critique to enhance the flight operation. Critique is constructive. It is what we think will work best, monitoring of our decisions to ensure 29

30 performance is as expected, and a debrief as to what will improve total crew performance next time. Critique is a continual process that challenges the dynamic environment of flight. Communicating Criticism Occasionally, mistakes happen. Bear in mind that people do not make mistakes on purpose but they are the result of a multitude of factors that may be influencing the individual at any one time. Miscommunication, task overload, misunderstanding of targets, stress or fatigue are some of the factors which could induce errors. Perhaps just letting the person know the consequences of his or her behaviour is enough the make the point. Other times, criticism must be communicated. The most effective way to do this is Avoid criticizing the person; focus on the behaviour exhibited instead Describe the specific behaviour you observed Avoid being sarcastic or parental Avoid using vague or general statements Avoid using anger Avoid asking questions for which you already know the answer Describe the impact of the behaviour on others in the working environment Describe the consequences of the behaviour. It is important to help the person see what type of consequences it might have for him or her personally over a period of time Reach an agreement on how to change behaviour. If the person chooses not to change the behaviour after being made aware of its negative impact and consequences, the person is either an intentional trouble maker or under severe emotional strain. Proper disciplinary action should be taken. If the person agrees to modify his or her behaviour, then a process should be agreed upon to provide supportive and positive feedback. Do Encourage others to talk Be tentative, explore Express your feelings objectively Focus on other's self-determination Use problem-sharing approach Do Not Degrade the other person, especially in public Be dogmatic or self-righteous Ignore other's feelings or ideas Argue Interrupt Conflict Resolution The key principle in resolving conflict in the cockpit is the determination of 30

31 What is right, not who is right When crew members advocate their position, a difference of opinion in the cockpit arises. CRM principles recognize this conflict as not only healthy, but expected. All crew member's input is a required ingredient for synergy to become active. A problem begins when outside conflict enters the cockpit, when heated emotion, bias, or lack of respect taint the real issue. Is it a cockpit issue or does it pertain to something beyond the confines of this cockpit? If it is not a cockpit issue, set it aside and deal with it once you are on the ground. Maintain a professional attitude. If it is a cockpit issue, resolve it based on what is right and not who is right. Rely on an impartial source of information if possible, an Aircraft Operations Manual or Air Regulation. This is a constructive method of resolution versus the destructive method of who is right. How to Manage Angry Conflict There will be times, inside or outside the cockpit, that angry conflict will take place. Should this angry conflict take place during a critical phase of flight, it will constitute a serious hazard to safety. The following tips will help you to manage the angry conflict until the problem can be resolved at a more convenient time. Maintain Control If possible, suggest another time (cool off) Avoid sharing the anger Objective: To Listen Listen Objective: Allow other to explain Use listening skills o Open ended questions o Probe questions o Paraphrasing Use Problem Sharing Approach Guide discussion to clarification of problem and constructive exploration of ways to resolve it o We have a problem o Define the problem-is it cockpit related? Cause vs effects o Explore the alternatives and consequences - elicit and suggest o What action should we take - pick the safest one 31

32 o o Mutual commitment Follow-up Maintain respect The use of personal insults and put-downs must be eliminated. "I wonder if we can approach this issue without attacking each other." Objective: To clarify the issue as objectively as possible Feelings are facts - do not deny the other's experience Separate the facts from opinion; mentally separate facts from irate expressions Avoid Hasty Responses Allow time for issues (facts vs opinions) to settle Wait and go back later Seek Constructive Solutions Explore alternatives Have other choose, if possible Effective Communication Effective communication encompasses the entire scope of the sender's verbal, non-verbal, symbolic message Effective communication is a recognition that a variety of assumptions and other filters potentially could distort the message that is sent or received Effective communication involves active listening for clear comprehension Effective communication completes the circuit of sending, receiving and feedback with all parties sharing a common understanding of the message Barriers to Communication There are many factors which block effective communication. They are organized into three distinct categories: 1. Physical Barriers The physical barriers are normally barriers that prevents the communication from being received - items such as noise, hearing loss, confusion, fatigue, poor radio equipment. The pilot has some control over these barriers. 32

33 2. Psycho-social The psycho-social barriers are much harder to detect and control; stemming from inside an individual, they encompass attitudes, feeling, bias and prejudice. For example, strong negative feelings in the cockpit can lead to a total lack of communication. Hostile environments create a safety hazard. Pilots must maintain a professional attitude to help to overcome the psycho-social barrier. 3. Technique-related The technique employed to process information can be a barrier in itself. The professional who processes information does it the same way every time. The individual answers two questions before responding or acting on any information: What is the literal meaning? What is the contextual meaning? If these questions cannot be answered to the receiver's satisfaction, then clarification should be sought. After this, the next question should be: What action is appropriate in response to this communication? This type of controlled response creates a professional atmosphere and no matter what the feelings are between the crew members this professionalism cuts through much of the personality problems. The bottom line for Crew Resource Management skills In promoting good communication in the cockpit NASA tested 7,500 flight crews and determined that the two most significant factors in the promotion of good CRM principles were: The Captain giving a thorough briefing The First Officer making inquiries and advocating his/her position BEHAVIORAL STYLES Behavioral Styles The purpose of behavioral analysis is to provide you with an awareness of your individual behavioral style. With this awareness, we will have a better understanding of why we react in a 33

34 specific way to people or to situations. Our reactions also affect the people around us, and in turn they react to us. This human interaction can be either healthy or dangerous in the flight environment. A knowledge of your behavioral style will ultimately benefit aviation safety. Behavioral Styles and Leadership All individuals have inherent leadership qualities which are manifested in their behaviour. It is a matter of how these leadership qualities are utilized that gives us the strength in our leadership abilities. List some qualities which can make a person a "Good Leader." List some qualities which can detract from "Leadership" ability. Knowing our own behavioral style will also help us to understand others. This will lead to: Mutual respect Mutual trust A willingness to adapt Better communication Safer flight 34

35 BEHAVIOURAL PATTERNS 35

36 Assertiveness Psychologists divide behavioral styles into two basic categories: Relationship Oriented - first consideration is the feelings of others which rank high in the decision making process. A person who is high relationship oriented and low task oriented is considered to have a caring or nurturing style of behavior. Task Oriented - first consideration is given to the task or goal in the decision making process. A person who is high task oriented and low relationship oriented is considered to have an aggressive style of behavior. Combinations - Low relationship oriented traits combined with low task oriented traits are individuals considered to be loners or autonomous in behavior style. The definition of "assert" The person who is both high in Relationship and task Orientation is considered to have an Assertive Style of behavior To put into words positively and with conviction To defend, maintain, or insist on the recognition of one's own rights To state to be true It is interesting to note that the weaknesses in behavior styles indicate an excess use of a strength. We must do less of our weakness to achieve the desirable assertiveness behavior style. Developing the strengths of the three styles allows for a high degree of task orientation in conjunction with a high degree of caring. Behavioral Styles - Body Language Non-verbal behavior in relation to the various behavioral styles: Aggressive General: exaggerated show of strength, flippant and sarcastic style, air of superiority Voice: tense, shrill, loud, shaky, cold, deadly quiet, demanding, superior, authoritarian Eyes: expressionless, narrowed, cold, staring, not really seeing you Stance: hands on hips, feet apart, stiff and rigid, rude, imperious Hands: clenched, abrupt gestures, finger pointing, fist pounding 36

37 Non-Assertive General: actions instead of words, hoping someone will guess what you want, looking as if you do not mean what you say Voice: weak, hesitant, soft, sometimes wavering Eyes: averted, downcast, pleading Stance: lean for support, stooped, excessive head nodding Hands: fidgety, flutter, clammy Assertive General: Attentive listening, assured manner, communicating, caring, strong Voice: firm, warm, well-modulated, relaxed Eyes: open, frank, direct, eye contact without staring Stance: well balanced, straight-on, erect, relaxed Hands: relaxed motions Assertive Behavior Assertive behavior is intended to be the middle ground by taking the best of aggressiveness (without the put-down negatives) and the best of non-assertiveness (without loss-of-self.) The action is genuine, complete and a direct communication of ideas, wants and needs. It is the conviction that one's position can be expressed strongly without dominating the other. Social grace can be maintained without weakening the position or request. Assertive behavior is based on the fact that every individual has rights and can act on behalf of these rights: The right to have and express your own feelings and ideas The right to be listened to and taken seriously The right to ask for what you want The right to get some of your own needs met The right to be treated with respect The right to say "no" at times and not feel guilty The right to ask for information from others The right to make mistakes The right to be assertive The right to choose not to assert yourself When we act assertively, we recognize these rights as legitimate. Assertive behavior becomes easier the more an individual recognize these rights. When we respect these rights in ourselves, we are also more likely to act in a manner that respects these rights in others. Aggressive behavior denies the rights of others, and non-assertive behavior overlooks these rights in ourselves. 37

38 Characteristics of Assertive Behavior Expressing statements of one's own feelings, needs and ideas Standing up for your rights in ways that do not violate the rights of others The behavior is honest, direct, expressive and self-enhancing The person feels confident about themselves during a situation and afterwards A high level of respect is maintained for the other individual There is a positive impact on the interaction Direct statements of agreement or disagreement Direct refusal or statement of "no" Compromising behavior Statements which communicate what you mean; "I" messages In a conflict situation, the difference between dealing with the issue and not with the person must be recognized. There is a directness and a problem-solving quality in assertive behavior that is not present in aggressive or non-assertive behavior. Negotiation as a problem-solving tool becomes a method of resolving differences. Ideas, wants, and needs are heard and explored openly. Collaboration and integration are seen as positives, and compromise could be an acceptable position. (Note - negotiation and compromise in problem solving is encouraged, however it is not the recommended option for cockpit decision making. Please note the difference.) Most individuals are more skillful or at ease with either aggressive or non-assertive behavior. While there are some who are naturally assertive, most need to acquire assertive skills. If assertiveness must be learned, what needs to change? Transforming Yourself into an Assertive Person Aggressive individuals need to learn skills that will allow the strong expression of feelings, ideas and wants without offense to others. This may require some revision of their basic beliefs. The aggressive person feels that they must stay on top, diminish the other person and be on guard, lest anyone take advantage of them. They might also fear that unless they are aggressive, they must be passive or non-assertive. This need not be the case. The aggressive individual needs to begin to trust themselves and their abilities to cope with differences or disagreements without necessarily winning or always having their own way. The aggressive person is entirely motivated by their own self-interests. Assertive skills allow individuals to achieve results. This helps people to be clear on what they want and to pursue goals in a positive way without demeaning the other person. These skills allow one to be strong in their views while remaining open to other viewpoints and alternatives. The aggressive person need not become more passive. Assertiveness will allow positive parts of aggressive behavior to be continued without the negative consequences of aggressiveness. The result can be strong expression with corresponding effectiveness. 38

39 Non-assertive individuals need to learn skills that will allow respect for others to be communicated without a diminishing of one's self, ideas or position. This may also require a revision of some basic beliefs. The non-assertive person feels that they must be condescending to others or overly respectful of the other person's rights at the expense of their own. They fear their behavior may be taken as aggressive unless they act in a non-assertive manner. Assertiveness is never aggressiveness. The non-assertive individual needs to begin to believe that others can accept and deal with disagreements and candor. The rights possessed by individuals can be acted upon without being offensive to the other. The non-assertive individual must begin to believe that helpfulness at the expense of self may not be helpful at all. Assertive skills allow individuals to achieve results. They help individuals to be clear on what they want and to act in a positive way without diminishing self. They allow a person to be sensitive to other individual's viewpoints and positions without diminishing their own ideas and alternatives. Non-assertive persons need not become more aggressive. Assertive skills will allow the positive aspect of non-assertive behavior to be continued without the negative consequences of passiveness. The result can be caring about the other with corresponding effectiveness. Summarizing Assertive Behavior Assertive behavior is the only way to defuse aggressive behavior It lessens heavy feelings when dealings with passive people It develops the possibility of receiving assertive responses Assertive behavior helps you get what you want and need It increases self-worth, self-esteem and self-confidence The assertive individual shares control and responsibility with others Assertive individuals are respectful to others as well as to themselves They make a strong impression without negative impact on others Assertive behavior enables a person to deal with negative and or passive responses The assertive individual is seen as a person who can be independent or dependent The assertive individual relies on others without loss of self-esteem Assertive people have better problem-solving abilities They feel good about themselves and others They increase the probability of workable solutions and effective decisions They produce more good ideas, opinions and feelings In the Cockpit As a crew member, you have the right to assure that your life will not be compromised by any action/inaction, miscommunication or misunderstanding. Assertive behavior in the cockpit does not challenge authority; it clarifies position, understanding or intent, and as a result enhances the safe operation of the flight. 39

40 Assertive behavior will enhance the effectiveness Of the Five Elements of CRM Inquiry Advocacy Conflict Resolution Decision Making Critique FATIGUE Fatigue in aviation is recognized as a serious safety concern. Fatigue poses a threat to the principles of CRM and induces human error. Human error is a contributing factor in 80% of all aviation accidents. The NASA-Ames Fatigue Countermeasures Program has been conducting studies on pilot fatigue for the last 10 years. Their research can be confirmed by interviewing any pilot that has ever flown fatigued. The Danger of Fatigue Pilots may be of the opinion that because they can stay awake for extended periods of time, they escape the adverse effects of fatigue. This is not the case. Fatigue is insidious; individuals cannot readily feel the onset of fatigue. The fatigued person may not be aware of it's gradual and cumulative effects and consequently, may be unaware that their performance has become degraded. The fatigued pilot may not easily accept an assessment of their degraded performance or be able to improve their performance despite increased effort. Fatigued pilots are less vigilant, more willing to accept below par performance, and show signs of poor judgment. They may find it increasingly difficult to make decisions; they may have to recheck information several times as a result of an impaired memory or inability to process information. Alertness and reactions times are decreased. Irritability and mood swings easily block communication and hamper CRM principles. One of the worst dangers of pilot fatigue is apathy. The fatigued pilot can be indifferent as to the outcome of the flight and their operational performance. The NASA-Ames studies show that a person who goes without sleep for hours experiences the same effects as if they had had two or three beers. They are euphoric, punchy, display decreased response time and motor control skills, segmented from their surroundings, impaired thinking. 40

41 Causes of Pilot Fatigue The main causes of pilot fatigue are The disturbance of circadian rhythms Continuous wakefulness Cumulative sleep loss Circadian Rhythms The aviation industry maintains a schedule that is 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Humans operate on a different schedule, a circadian rhythm, which can conflict with a crew member's required work periods. This clash of schedules can affect pilot performance, behaviour and attitude. There are two circadian low periods where an individual will experience increased sleepiness - between 3 and 5 o'clock both a.m. And p.m. A combination of the circadian low period and fatigue could reduce pilot performance by up to 35%. During sleep, the body's core temperature, often used as a biological marker, drops markedly. If you are forced to stay awake during the time normally allotted for sleep, the disruption of the circadian cycle produces the effects of fatigue. The more time zones that are crossed, the longer it will take an individual to adjust. It is easier to adjust to a westbound time zone change than eastbound. Sleep Loss and Microsleeps The loss of as little as one hour sleep begins a person's sleep debt. Eight hours of disrupted sleep can also produce the effect of too little sleep. You cannot indefinitely deny your body of its required sleep, nor can you substitute it with anything else. The only cure for a sleep debt is to sleep. Acute fatigue is severe, and could result from the loss of a night's sleep. Chronic fatigue is the result long term sleep debt. It is usually not recognized by the individual and is more difficult to counteract. Acute or chronic fatigue can lead to a microsleep. Microsleeps are uncontrolled spontaneous episodes of sleep that could last for seconds or minutes. During a microsleep, a person disengages from reality and becomes unresponsive. They fail to respond to outside information. There is a 10 times increase of a microsleep at night than during the day There is a 10 times increase of a microsleep relative to each hour worked Microsleeps increase with cumulative sleep debt A microsleep does not decrease a sleep debt 41

42 Other Fatigue Inducers There are other factors that can cause or contribute to pilot fatigue Length of duty day Time of day, shift irregularities Schedule, consecutive duty days Multiple layovers in quick succession Restricted time available for sleep Quality of sleep 24-hour layovers following a night arrival Easterly direction flights traversing several time zones Poor cockpit seat design or ergonomics Stressors such as noise, vibration, flicker, heat/cold, wearing headsets Accumulation of operational factors such as bad weather, congested airspace Boredom, waiting, monotony, monitoring instruments Poor diet, hypoglycemia Skill fatigue - a progressive loss of performance ability due to prolonged or extreme mental or physical activity Vision fatigue - the eye's inability to maintain effective functioning from prolonged visual exertion Illness Physical exertion Dehydration Self-medication Caffeine, smoking, alcohol Hangover Hypoxia, flights with cabin altitude over 5,000 ft Unresolved stress Symptoms of Pilot Fatigue Be aware that these are some of the symptoms that may affect you, but also watch for them in other crew members Slowed reaction time, both physically and mentally Increased errors despite increased effort Individual's underestimation of their performance degradation Performance variability and unpredictability Preoccupation with a single task Fixation on a single source of information Perseverance of an ineffective solution Short-term memory loss, such as a frequency change Impaired judgment and decision making Easily distracted by unimportant items Sloppy flying 42

43 Loss of initiative Depressed, apathetic, lethargic or moody Willingness to accept below standard performance Limited situational awareness Poor communication skills Common Misconceptions A pilot suffering the effects of fatigue will not be able to counteract them by Skill Increased effort Stamina Physical conditioning Education Training Experience Will Professionalism Motivation Alcohol and Fatigue Alcohol is the most widely used sleep aid, but quantities can interfere with quality of sleep therefore increase sleepiness. Pilots on short haul trips consume three times the amount of alcohol on a layover than they consume at home. Scheduled rest periods allow for required sleep It is difficult for the body to quickly adjust to required periods of sleep and alertness. The time allotted for sleep on a layover may not coincide with the flight crew member's circadian rhythm. Subjective analysis The individual may have a false sense of confidence about their performance abilities when operating in a fatigued state. It is difficult to reliably estimate your own alertness and performance, especially if the individual has a history of flying fatigued and feels motivated enough to overcome the adverse effects. Artificial enhancers Caffeine is the most popular artificial stimulant, and can be useful after waking up. Continued caffeine intake will deter sleep during the time allotted for sleep. Caffeine is also a diuretic and causes dehydration. 43

44 Melatonin is a depressant currently being promoted in the United States as a natural hormone which allegedly induces sleep in shift workers or elderly people. Melatonin is not legal in Canada. There are problems with quality control, potency and monitoring of this supplement. The biological effects and the long term use of Melatonin is not known. Fatigue Countermeasures Some causes of fatigue are controllable, and pilots should make every effort to avoid flying fatigued when possible. Do not begin a flight with a sleep debt, make this a priority over outside activities. NASA studies have shown that an individual who received 8 hours of sleep was better able to carry out pilot duties after being awake for 20 hours, than that of a pilot who received just 6 hours of sleep Pre-planning for a known sleep disruption is essential for managing alertness. Develop a regular pre-sleep routine, sleep in a comfortable environment Proper diet, physical conditioning, avoiding alcohol and smoking will help the body to stay healthy and be better able to cope with the effects of fatigue. Do not exercise or eat a large meal directly before sleep Use caffeine sparingly during flight as it may keep you awake later when you are trying to sleep. Water is favoured to counteract dehydration effects. If you wake up spontaneously and cannot go back to sleep within minutes, or have trouble falling asleep, get up and try again later During a layover, get as much sleep as you would normally in a 24-hour period. Trust your own physiology - if you feel sleepy and circumstances permit, sleep A 40-minute nap, dubbed the NASA-nap, will help to rejuvenate an individual without them entering into a deep sleep, which is more difficult to wake-up from Summary The only remedy for a sleep debt is to sleep No amount of will-power will overcome the effects of fatigue Pilots retain a level of control over their fatigue levels Fatigued pilots must be aware of the gradual and cumulative effects of fatigue, which degrades their performance STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress is a necessary evil in a pilot's life. In moderation, it is a key factor in the achievement of peak performance. Too much stress will detract from the pilot's ability to reason and function. Not enough stress causes complacency. Either not enough stress or too much stress can lead to a lack of situational awareness. 44

45 What is Stress? The definition of "stress" originated from the engineering field A force placed upon an object to cause straining, bending or breaking Related to humans, the term stress is used to describe the body's response to demands placed on it. There are three types of stress: Physical - environmental conditions, noise, vibration, stages of hypoxia Physiological - fatigue, lack of physical fitness, improper eating habits Emotional - social and emotional factors related to living and intellectual activities, such as solving difficult problems in flight There are also two categories of stress Chronic Stress - the result of long term demands of lifestyle or personal situations (health, relationships, job security) Acute Stress - the result of demands placed on the body by a current issue (time constraints, bad weather, equipment failure) Effects of Stress Stress is cumulative. The body does not differentiate between the type of stress it feels, but there is a biological differentiation between the category of stress. Acute stress injects adrenaline into the bloodstream and becomes a source of energy. Heartbeat, breathing rate and blood sugar levels all increase. The body is charged into a "fight or flight" mode which enables the individual to quickly react to the situation. Chronic stress is the more dangerous of the two. It can make a situation that normally should be controllable seem more difficult to handle. Chronic stress will exaggerate the effects of acute stress. Long term chronic stress may cause illness, insomnia, irritability, ulcers, and high blood pressure. It can threaten an individual's health. 45

46 Stress is cumulative. High levels of stress over a period of time will push the individual on the back side of the stress curve and affect the pilot's ability to deal with complex or difficult tasks. Performance will be progressively degraded. Communication and CRM principles will be adversely affected. STRESSORS IN AVIATION Medicals Checkrides Illness Pay Conflict Fears related to flying Time schedules Passengers Noise and vibration Temperature and humidity Diet Dehydration Altitude changes Confined space Poor visibility 46

47 Fatigue SYMPTOMS Muscle tightness Aches & pains Upset stomach Anxiety Depression Feelings of depletion Emotional burnout Emotional outbursts Withdrawal Conflict in relationships Lack of energy Recognizing Stress Levels Either monotony or over-stimulation have the potential to increase the rate of human error. Pilots require some stress to maintain peak performance. How much stress is too much? Stress levels change from day to day, from individual to individual. An awareness of what our stress levels are, and a lookout for an indication of what other crew member's stress levels are, will provide an indication of what performance level can be anticipated. With reference to the pre-course material, Question Sets #4, #5, and #6 relate to gauging your stress level. Question Set #3 is a Stress Barometer and will gauge how susceptible an individual is to stress based on personality type. Personality Type Type A Type B "Hot Reactor" Susceptible to stress "Cool Reactor" Low susceptibility to stress Question Set #4 provides an indication of your Stress Level. It may shed some light on why some people cope with stress - consciously or subconsciously - better than others. If your score on the high stress indicators test is: 8 or less, you have mild stress 9 to 24 is moderate stress 47

48 Higher than 24 indicates the high stress range If you scored high on Question Set #3 Stress Barometer, it shows that you are coping well with your present level of stress. Question Set #5 is a Life Event stress evaluation for chronic stress levels. It provides a broad indicator of some of the stressful situations you may have recently encountered. The higher the score, the better the chance of experiencing a significant illness in the near future. If you score high, it makes sense to avoid further stressors. Scores of: = 30% chance = 50% chance Over 300 = 80% chance Signs of Stress It is relatively easy to see the signs of stress in yourself and in others - if you know what to look for. Is this profile recognizable in anyone you know? Do they Rush speaking Complete other people's sentences Rush eating Hate waiting in line Never seem to catch up Schedule more activities than they have time available Detest wasting time Drive too fast most of the time Often try to do several things at once Become impatient if others are too slow Have little time for relaxation, intimacy, or enjoying the environment Stressed-Out On the back side of the stress curve, pilot performance will be degraded. Too much stress leads an individual to distress. As the pilot suffers from over-stress, it could lead to Eroded judgment Compromised or accepting of lower performance levels Inattention 48

49 Loss of vigilance and alertness Preoccupation with a single task Fixation on one instrument or procedure Forgetting or omitting procedural steps Greater tendency toward spatial disorientation and misperceptions Misreading charts or checklists Misjudgment of distance or altitude Loss of time perception Loss of situational awareness Attitudes Definition: Attitude (noun); a frame of mind affecting one's thoughts and behavior; a general cast of mind with regard to something. With reference to the pre-course material Question Set #6, transpose your scores in sequence from columns one through five on the lines below. Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Anti-Auth Impulsive Invulnerable Macho Resignation It is recognized that the choice of responses forced you to select what could be an unsatisfactory alternative to the situation. The profile indicates your potential for each of the five hazardous thought patterns. The situations presented were written in the third person so that you would apply your attitudes and judgments to another person's decision. Keep in mind that when you evaluated these situations your response was based upon your attitudes and your judgment of the situation. In other words, if you ever do exercise poor judgment, this profile will help you to understand your reasons. The higher the relative number, the greater the probability of that particular hazardous thought pattern. Many accidents involve pilots who allow themselves to be influenced by one or more of the five hazardous thought patterns, and are enticed to takes chances as a result. 5 Hazardous Attitudes Anti-authority: "Don't tell me" This hazardous attitude is found in someone who does not like to be told what to do. They may either be resentful of having someone tell them what to do or may just disregard rules and procedures. An assertive person will question authority if warranted. 49

50 Impulsivity: "Do something quickly" Someone who does not stop and think about what they are about to do. They do not select the best alternative, they do the first thing that comes to mind. Invulnerability: "It won't happen to me" Many people feel that accidents will happen to others but not to them. People who think this way are more likely to be risk takers beyond acceptable levels. Macho: "I can do it" People who are always trying to prove themselves take risks to try and impress others. Both men and women are susceptible. Resignation: "What's the use" People who have this hazardous attitude do not see themselves as making a great deal of difference in what happens to them. They attribute events to either good or bad luck; they leave actions to others. They can go along with unreasonable requests to be a "nice-guy." PROFILE GRAPH There are five columns for each of the attitude scores. Place a mark on each line at the height that matches your score. Draw lines between the columns to create a profile. (Insert Profile Graph here) The profile graph shows which patterns you would tend to use when your judgment becomes influenced by certain circumstances and hazardous thinking. The inventory does not show that you are bound to act in the manner of one or more of the hazardous thoughts all the time. Having thoughts similar to the ones described as hazardous is common and normal, but it is important to know that you can improve your ability to balance all your thoughts against possible outcomes so that you act only in a non-hazardous manner. Whether you engage in one or more of these thought patterns, often or rarely, learning to control them will be worthwhile. Stress Management If we don't manage stress, stress will manage us. Life events do not create stress; we create the stress in our minds. You can let it consume you - or you can eliminate or reduce it - and change stress into an energy source instead of an illness. The source of stress must be identified before it can be addressed and reduced, or eliminated. Take a rational look at the stressor. Ask yourself Is my emotional mind working to lesson or increase my stress level? What is the reality of the situation? What is the very worst thing that is likely to happen to me? Am I over-reacting to the problem? Can I change the situation for a positive outcome? If I cannot, what is the best way to cope with it? Has this ever happened to me before? If so, what did I do and what can I do better? 50

51 If not, then what is the best rational plan? Make a plan and act on it. The goal is to control or to eliminate the effects of stress, recognizing that the stressor itself may not be under your control. Ensure sure that your solution contains the "I" word at the beginning, because that is the one thing you control. "We" or "they" may be part of the solution but "I" will have to work towards the solution. Stress causes an unnecessary expenditure of energy through adrenaline production. The best way to rid the body of excess adrenaline is with physical exertion, or exercise. When it is not possible to exercise, a walk is an good way to relieve the effects of high stress, and also provides a mental time-out from the stressor. Vitamin C also helps rid your body of adrenaline. Weight control, diet, use of alcohol or tobacco will affect the body's ability to control stress. Get the proper amount of sleep. Be realistic and practical. This may call for you to be flexible and willing to adapt. You can reduce the effects of stress and cope with it better if you take a break from the problem. Stress relief is one of the main reasons why we take a vacation, but if that is not possible, sometimes a change is as good as a break. Discussing the stressor with a sympathetic ear will help you to cope with the situation, and input can be provided from someone who may not be emotionally involved. A positive attitude and a sense of humor will help an individual to cope with stress. Perseverance with a plan of attack, and a look at the "big picture" will also help to modify the effects of stress. Summary Identify, recognize, eliminate or reduce too much stress Cope actively with demands East, sleep and exercise properly Communicate Avoid mind altering substances Check your attitude, sense of humor and general emotional state Stress is associated not only with distress but also with excitement, achievement, and effective performance One of the major reasons for learning effective stress management is long-term preventive health care In addition to helping our lives work better, stress will help us to achieve peak performance The greatest discovery of mankind is that human beings can alter their lives by altering their attitudes 51

52 SITUATIONAL AWARENESS True situational awareness is an individual's accurate perception of reality. The "Theory of the Situation" is what one assumes to be true for a specific period of time. If a discrepancy exists between the individual's Theory of the Situation and the Reality of the Situation, a loss of situational awareness occurs and an error chain could begin. Elements of Situational Awareness Theory of the Situation - A set of beliefs about what is happening and what action and individual should take. It is based on the interpretation of available information. It is a human's perception of reality. Reality of the Situation - Actually reality, without human perceptions Theory of Practice - a person's concepts and skills developed over time used to build and respond to Theories of the Situation. It is the sum of experience. It is normal for people to defend their Theory of the Situation rather than to change it, or inquire about possible error. Many accidents have occurred where a crew was using a faulty Theory of the Situation and overlooked data that indicated otherwise. 52

53 You are MOST likely to change your Theory of the Situation when you Operate under low stress Have access to and accept feedback Develop inquiry skills into your Theory of Practice. Guard against interpreting information to support your Theory of the Situation You are LEAST likely to change your Theory of the Situation when Your Theory of Practice is over-learned You have a complacent attitude - "we've always done it that way" It is a crisis situation The Theory of the Situation is central to your self esteem, ego In attempting to change your Theory of the Situation, as in Conflict Resolution, the important factor is What is right, not who is right The CRM principles of inquiry, advocacy, conflict resolution and critique will assist in clarifying the Reality of the Situation, and provide the basis for higher quality decision making. Fatal Accidents Worldwide Commercial Jet Fleet Exposure percentage based on average flight duration of 1.6 hours Excludes: Sabotage Military action 53

54 Clues to the Loss of Situational Awareness Low Stress Level - When the amount of information being processed is significantly low, the level of situational awareness is low. Low stress level is common on long flights when we become bored or when we are fatigued. This lack of alertness will result in a loss of recognition of warning signals and reduce our ability to react quickly and correctly in an emergency. High Stress Level - When the amount of information being processed is significantly above an individual's capacity. If our stress level is very high, we operate at low levels of situational awareness. This is commonly referred to as information overload. Ambiguity - When information can be understood in more than one way, there can be a fifty per cent chance of an accident occurring. A classic example is the captain calling "take-off power" and the first officer reduces the power to idle. Confusion or Unresolved Discrepancies - When information is unclear, or two or more pieces of information do not agree, we must search for information until the discrepancies are resolved. A simple example with catastrophic consequences is the acceptance of a clearance to descend below published minimum safe altitudes. Fixation or Preoccupation - The ability to detect other important stimuli is lost when an individual is fixated, preoccupied or distracted. This situation can easily result in no one flying or looking outside the aircraft unless there is proper assignment of responsi-bilities essential to safe 54

55 flight. The entire crew's preoccupation with a malfunctioning nose gear indication light resulted in an L-1011 crashing into the Florida Everglades. No one was monitoring the flight instruments; no one was flying the aircraft. Departures from sops/regulations - Violating minimums or using improper procedures puts pilots into a gray area without being able to predict safe outcomes with certainty. Consistent and blatant violations of rules often reveals other systemic problems within an organization. Failure to Meet Planned Targets - In flight, pilots are constantly setting planned targets such as airspeeds, altitudes, checkpoints, times, etc. When planned targets are not met, like being high and fast on an approach, we must question why and recognize the consequences of not meeting set targets. Gut Feeling - This is often the most detectable and reliable clue to the loss of Situational Awareness. Our bodies are able to detect stimuli long before we have consciously put the big picture together. Learn to recognize your own signs, such as stomach butterflies, muscle tension, mood swings, etc. Trust your feelings; policemen sometimes place their lives on gut feelings. Maintaining Situational Awareness The following eight skills will favourably contribute to gaining and maintaining Situational Awareness Experience - Experience creates a mental file. Pilots draw upon it every time they fly and use it to assess conditions and make decisions. Under pressure, people tend to revert to previous patterns of behaviour. An individual's experience file helps establish how one will interpret and respond to a given set of conditions. 55

56 Training - Training does far more than perfect skills. Training adds to a pilot's experience file by creating events that rarely happen in real life. For example, a flight simulator session can generate a lifetime of experience in a very short period of time. Few pilots will ever actually have an engine fail at V1. Yet through training, it can become part of a pilot's experience so that if and when it does occur, there will be something to draw upon. Spatial Orientation - Spatial orientation is position awareness; knowing where the aircraft is in relation to VOR's, airports, runways, terrain, or other aircraft. It is knowing where you are and where you are going. Physical Flying Skills - As the pilot's role becomes that of a cockpit manager, it must be remembered that pilots still have to be able to fly the aircraft proficiently. Flight control manipulation continues to be an important part of a pilot's job. Ability To Process Information - This is an ability to use information from sense inputs, instruments, and other sources to form an accurate picture of what is happening. It is the ability to integrate all the elements that contribute to Situational Awareness. Cockpit Management Skills - These contribute to a pilot's ability to manage the total of the flight environment. Personal Attitude - Professionalism is a matter of attitude. Safety does not just happen; it is a conscious effort. To be safe, one must think safe. Emotional / Physical Conditions - An individual's emotional and physical condition affects their perception of the environment. Emotional problems, mental illness, physical conditions, and frame of mind can cloud or distort an accurate perception of events or conditions. Summary Crew Resource Management principles stress that all resources must be considered before a quality decision can be made. Therefore, the quality of the decisions are directly related to the amount and the accuracy of information gathered pertaining to the crew, aircraft and the environment. If a pilot suspects that a loss of Situational Awareness has occurred, revert immediately to the basics Maintain Control - Fly the Aircraft Assess the Problem in the Time Available Gather Information from All Sources Assess All the Options - Choose the Best Monitor the Results - Alter Plan as Required 56

57 Continual use of the 5 CRM principles will assist crew members to retain their Situational Awareness at all times LEADERSHIP Inquiry Advocacy Conflict Resolution Critique Decision Making The best way of combating low morale is to exercise strong leadership, which can be applied using three keys: communication, consolation and co-operation. I strongly support this formula. Leadership is a perishable skill that we must preserve in today's world of management initiatives and business planning. We manage resources, we must lead people. Air Commodore Peacock-Edward Inspector or Flight Safety (RAF) Flight Comment No.1, 1995 At the heart of Crew Resource Management is effective leadership. Each member of the crew must recognize that he or she has a leadership responsibility that is important to effective decision making. No matter which position you occupy in the crew you must learn to become a leader in that position There is a fundamental difference between leadership, which is acquired, and authority, which is assigned. An individual's position as captain does not automatically assume that he or she is an effective leader. Leadership skills are a function of learning. An optimal situation exists when leadership and authority are combined. A first officer (or other crew member) has equal opportunity for leadership in their position. Acquired leadership skills can enhance any position, regardless of the assigned authority, as everyone has their position to fill. These leadership skills are also important when the first officer takes the "Pilot Flying" role, with the captain assuming the "Pilot Not Flying" role. Leadership is a reciprocal process. There are behaviours that both a leader and a follower must apply to ensure effective performance. One leader's behaviour might be to provide direction for carrying out a task. The follower behaviour might be to provide feedback on performance of the task. Leader behaviours are less effective without complementary follower behaviours. 57

58 What makes a Leader? A leader is a person whose ideas and actions influence the thought and the behaviour of others. This is accomplished through the use of examples, persuasion, and an understanding of the goals and desires of the group. The leader becomes a catalyst for change and a master of influence. Leadership skills should be developed throughout a crew member's career. Leadership involves teamwork, and the quality of a leader depends on the success of the leader's relationship with the team. The quality of the team will be affected by the quality of the leader. Leadership is needed to effectively understand and cope with a variety of situations. Personality or attitude clashes within a crew complicate the task of a leader and can have an influence on both safety and efficiency. Aircraft accident and incident investigations have demonstrated that personality differences can influence the behaviour and performance of crew members. Leadership Skills 1. Regulating Information Flow The leader must regulate, manage and direct the flow of information, ideas and suggestions within the crew members and outside sources Communicating flight information Asking for opinions, suggestions Giving opinions, suggestions Clarifying communication Providing feedback Regulating participation 2. Directing and Coordinating Crew Activities The leader must function as crew manager to provide orientation, coordination and direction for group performance Directing and coordinating crew activities Monitoring and assessing crew performance Providing planning and orientation Setting priorities 3. Motivating Crew Members The leader must maintain a positive climate to encourage good crew member relations and to invite full participation in crew activities Creating proper climate 58

59 Maintain an "open" cockpit atmosphere Resolving/preventing angry conflict Maintain positive relations Providing non-punitive critique and feedback 4. Decision Making The leader is ultimately responsible for decisions Assuming responsibility for decision making Gathering and evaluating information Formulating decisions Implementing decisions Providing feedback on actions 59

60 Analytical Decision Making The principles of CRM recognize that the captain retains the authority and the responsibility for the decisions made during flight operations. However, the synergy created by considering all resources in the decision making process heightens the quality of the decisions made by the captain. Decisions made in isolation will most likely be of lesser quality. 60