Influencing Individuals Decisions about Participating in Intramural Sports. Multiple Groups Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Motivational Factors

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1 Multiple Groups Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Motivational Factors Influencing Individuals Decisions about Participating in Intramural Sports D.O.I: K. Rickel 1, S. Roger Park 2, Joseph Morales 3 1,2 Gonzaga University 3 Master s degree from Gonzaga University Abstract X OPHΓIA CHOREGIA HOREGIA Sport Management International Journal Scientific Forum in Sport Management SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 Intramural programs provide competition and recreation during the academic year for the diverse college populations of faculty, staff, and currently enrolled students and their spouses/partners who do not participate in other organized sports on campus. Sport psychologists, physical activity leaders, and others have shown an increased interest in the psychological factors that motivate college students to consume sport and physical activity (Rickel, Stoll, & Beller, 2005, 2006; Harkema, Dieser, Lankford, & Scholl, 2006; Yue-de, Wen-hao, & Ying-chun, 2009). Little research has been done with regard to the motivational factors affecting individuals decisions about participating specifically in intramural sports such as flag football, basketball, and soccer, etc. The purpose of this study was to independently test the measurement model of the Participant Motivations Questionnaire (PMQ) assumed to underlie the motivational factors of the intramural sport participation by male and female college students. In addition, this study also examined whether or not PMQ was valid for the intramural sport participants in a northwestern university of the USA. Based on the results of the CFA, the one-factor model does fit both male and female college students. However, the factor loadings are not equivalent across the two groups. In summary, it is noted that the regenerated 24-item PMQ for the intramural sport participants is unequally valid for the current subjects of male and female college students. Key Words: Participant Motivations Questionnaire, Physical Activity

2 70 SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 Introduction Intramural programs provide competition and recreation during the academic year for the diverse college populations of faculty, staff, and currently enrolled students and their spouses/partners who do not participate in other organized sports on campus. Intramural sports are the single biggest campus activity, and many universities spend large sums of money supplying the necessary equipment and facilities to meet campus physical activity and sportneeds (Fitzgerald, 1997; Webber & Mearman, 2009). Sport psychologists, physical activity leaders, and others have shown an increased interest in the psychological factors that motivate college students to consume sport and physical activity (Rickel, Stoll, & Beller, 2005, 2006; Harkema, Dieser, Lankford, & Scholl, 2006; Yue-de, Wen-hao, & Ying-chun, 2009). Little research has been done with regard to the motivational factors affecting individuals decisions about participating specifically in intramural sports such as flag football, basketball, and soccer, etc. Gill, Gross, and Huddleston (1983) developed the Participant Motivations Questionnaire (PMQ) instrument which is composed of 8 motivational factors to measure the sport participants motivations for youth generation. Thestudies showed the most important reasons for participating were to improve skills, have fun, learn new skills, be challenged, and be physically fit while a follow up study confirmed the similar reasons (Gill & Williams, 2008). Several others used this measure, or a modification, with other youth sport samples (Gould, Feltz, & Weiss, 1985; Klint & Weiss, 1986; Passer, 1988; Wankel & Kreisel, 1985; Sit & Lindner, 2007), and the results were consistent in several ways. Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) cited three common threads, while others also confirmed one or more of the themes. First, several factor analyses yielded consistent factors, including competence, fitness, affiliation, team aspects, competition, and fun. Second, children and adolescents typically indicated that several motives were important. Third, there were minimal age, gender, experience, and sport activity differences, but differences between goal orientations influenced future participation (Sit & Lindner, 2007). Additionally the Participant Motivations Questionnaire found the motives of a youth folk dancing group to be similar to that of youth physical activity group in that they enjoyed the social atmosphere and having fun (Doulias et al., 2005). Master s level participants have been studied using the PMQ and found slightly different, the most highly reported motives forparticipation were to stay healthy, liking the activity, to improve fitness, and to maintain joint mobility with significant differences based on gender, age, education level, and occupation (Kolt, Driver, & Giles, 2004). Several studies (Dwyer, 1992; Park, 2005; Park & Stotlar, 2006; Park & Lee, 2008)confirmed validity of the Participant Motivations Questionnaire

3 MULTIPLE GROUPS CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVATIONAL 71 (PMQ) with college students. Dwyer (1992) sampled university students using a five-point response format to examine the measure s internal structure. His resulting six-factor structure (i.e. team orientation, achievement/status, fitness, friendship, skills development, and fun/excitement/challenge) was similar to the results with youth samples, and all subscales were internally consistent. Dwyer found the most important motives for college students to participate were maintain fitness, experience fun, excitement, challenges, and finally to acquire and improve skills. These findings are consistent with the youth literature (Gill et al., 1983; Gould et al., 1985; Klint & Weiss, 1987;Allender et al., 2006; Colquitt et al., 2011).The least important reasons were friendship-oriented, achievement/status-oriented, and team-oriented factor; these vary from the results with youth. The purpose of the current study was to examine if the Participant Motivations (Gill et al., 1983) was still valid for intramural sports participants at a University in the Northwestern United States of America. This study also examined factorial invariance of motivational factors of intramural sports participation across the demographics information such as gender, age, residence, and sports played. In other words, to examine the motivational factors of intramural sports participation assumed to underlie the motivational factors independently for the male and female college students. Invariance testing for multiple groups Invariance testing for multiple groups is similar to cross-validation, in which parameter estimates, such as factor loadings, regression coefficients, etc., obtained from one group are literally forced onto the data for the other group. If the two groups are basically similar, this imposition of parameter estimates from one group will fit the data of the second group. In invariance testing, a model fit is assessed in terms of the ability of these parameter estimates from one group to reproduce the correlations of the other group. Intramural programs at the university level are becoming more recognizable through the public eye. High school students considering college are not only looking at the academics, but they look also the extracurricular/intramurals. More students are now considering college life outside the world of academiaand are exploring social events and activities offered as a part of the university. We will look more closely at the intramural programs that give students a chance to participate in a variety of sports. Campus activities such as intramural sports have become a factor in helping high school students determine which college to attend (Sax, Astin, Korn & Mahoney, 1995). The experience of college as a whole can be a positive one due to the involvement and participation in the intramural

4 72 SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 programs (Tinto, 1988). Alexander Astin s Theory of Involvement (1993) provides a strong argument in favor of participation in student extracurricular activities and organizations by indicating that such participation contributes to the education of students (Lindsey & Sessoms, 2006, 30-31). Extracurricular activities, especially intramural programs are important for what they can offer the participant/student. Participating gives structure and stability to the student experience. Intramural programs on college campuses enforce moral conduct such as good sportsmanship. Prior to participating, students must agree to follow the rules and guidelines of the program and may face consequences of their penalties (Rothwell & Theodore, 2006). This is to promote moral standards throughout the university and a student s college experience as a whole. Throughout the enforcement of good sportsmanship in an intramural program, opportunities are provided for individuals to clarify their values, thus contributing to the overall development of the student (Rothwell & Theodore, 2006, 46). Intramural programs have always been associated with the Physical Education or Athletic departments, however many programs are now moving towards the Department of Student Life, Student Affairs, or Campus Life (Steinbach, 2010), and the change carries many motives. Some cases have the intramural program located in the fitness center and usually associated with wellness and fitness activities. Many students do not share the same educational goals as Physical Education or Athletics but still desire to participate in physical activity, which is why many intramural programs are moving towards the Student Life atmosphere which blankets all students and not just those in Physical Education or Athletics (Campitelli, 2000). Placing it in the wellness and fitness center of universities gives all students the equal opportunity to participate in their level of play and their choice of sport/physical activity. Method Participants One hundred and sixty nine college students (67.5% male and 32.5% female) at a private university in the Pacific Northwestern part of USA responded to the questionnaires. The participant s educational levels ranged from graduate student (1.2%), to freshman (21.9%), sophomore (21.3%), junior (23.7%), senior (31.4%), and law school student (.6%). Ninety five students (56.2%) reside on-campus and seventy one students (42%) commute from their off-campus houses and three (1.8%) did not answer. Basketball was the most popular sport (30.5%) followed by soccer (21.1%), flag-football (17.4%), softball (16.3%), volleyball (11%), and dodge ball (3.5%). Over

5 MULTIPLE GROUPS CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVATIONAL 73 half (66.9%) of the students participated in the intramural sports in both semesters and 26.6% and 6.5% of the respondents participated in only Spring semester and Fall semester, respectively. Instrumentation and Procedures Participant Motivations Questionnaire (Gill et al., 1983) was used as the research instrument. The 30-item instrument was rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). According to Gill et al., the research instrument consisted of eight dimensions, namely achievement/status with six items, team-oriented reasons with three items, fitness-oriented reasons with three items, energy release with five items, miscellaneous reasons with three items, skills development with three items, friendships with four items and fun with four items. A demographic questionnaire was developed for this study to obtain information concerning gender, age, educational level, average number of hours spent for the intramural sport, and residence. College students enrolled in physical activity classes and who used the campus recreation center were recruited and informed about the purpose of the study. The survey questionnaires were distributed in person, and the participants completed the PMQ and the demographics questionnaires, accordingly. Exploratory Factors Extraction Principal factors extraction with varimax rotation was performed to estimate number of factors through SPSS FACTOR on 30 items from PMQ for a sample of 169 college students. This was done since the instrument was applied to a different set of population being college students instead of youth. Based on the Principal factors extraction, five factors were extracted. All factors were internally consistent and well defined by the variables. With a cut of.49 for inclusion of a variable in interpretation of a factor, 6 of 30 variables did not load on any factor. Failure of numerous variables to load on a factor reflects heterogeneity of items on the PMQ. Variables are ordered and grouped by size of loading to facilitate interpretation. Loadings under.45 (20% of variance) are replaced by zeros. Regenerated five factors were named Challenge/Skills development with eight items (Q1, Q9, Q10, Q21, Q23, Q25, Q27, and Q28), Competition reasons with four items (Q3, Q17, Q20, and Q26), Fitness reasons with three items (Q6, Q15, and Q24), Social/Teamwork reasons with four items (Q2, Q8, Q18, and Q22), and Energy Release reasons with four items (Q4, Q16, Q19, and Q30).

6 74 SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 Confirmatory Factor Analysis A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to conduct the equivalence of the regenerated new PMQ model, consisting of the following motivations in the intramural sports (i.e., Challenge/Skills Development, Competition, Fitness, Social/Teamwork, and Energy Release) among male and female college students in a northwestern college of the USA. In order to conduct the multiple groups CFA for the male and female students, a series of maximum likelihood CFAs were used in the analysis of data. These CFAs were based on the AMOS statistical program. The major consideration in conducting the equivalence of structural equation modeling was the issue of what indices should be used to assess the overall model fit. The recommendations of Hu and Bentler (1999) provide some measures of model fit. First, the Chi-square goodness of fit statistic measures the difference between the sample covariance matrix and the covariance matrix based on the model. Statistically significant values of the χ 2 indicate a poorly fitting model. Second, cut-off values of.95 and above should be used to support adequate fit based on the Normed Fit Index (NFI), Tucker- Lewis Index (TLI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI). Results & Discussion The purpose of this study was to independently test the measurement model of the PMQ assumed to underlie the motivational factors of the intramural sport participation by male and female college students. In addition, this study also examined whether or not PMQ was valid for the intramural sport participants in a northwestern university of the USA. Based on the results of CFA using AMOS software and the new PMQ, motivational factors of the intramural sport participation do fit both male and female college students. However, the factor loadings are not equivalent across the gender. According to AMOS results of the baseline model, the Chi-square goodness of fit was 57.44, p<.001; the TLI was.961; the NFI was.983; and the CFI was.985. Based on these four indices of assessing fit in path, the new PMQ baseline model fit the data. Multiple groups CFA was used to determine the equivalence of the new PMQ for male and female college students in a northwestern college of the USA. The one-factor model seems to fit the male college students (χ 2 = , p<.001; NFI =.97; TLI =.932; and CFI =.973). On the other hand, the one-factor model for female students was interpreted as not adequate with χ 2 = 3.808, p>.05; TLI = 1.005; CFI = 1.00; NFI =.997. Figure 1 Motivations in Intramural Sport Participation (new PMQ Model).

7 MULTIPLE GROUPS CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVATIONAL 75 Figure 1: Motivations in Intramural Sport Participation (new PMQ Model) Challenge/Skills Development Competition Reasons Intramural SportMotivations Fitness Reasons Social/Teamwork Reasons Energy Release Reasons Table 1. Multiple Groups Confirmatory Factor Analysis Across Gender (N = 169) Invariant χ 2 TLI NFI CFI One-Factor Model (male/female) / / / /1.00 Table 2. Factor loading of participant motivations in the intramural sport for the one-factor model for male and female college students (N = 169) Factor Loading Indicator Male Female Challenge/Skills.012*.013* Competition Fitness Social/Teamwork Energy Release Note. * indicates significant at the.05 level In summary, it is noted that the based on the results of the CFA, the one-factor model of the regenerated 24-item PMQ for the intramural sport

8 76 SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 participants is unequally valid for the current subjects of male and female college students. The PMQ has higher validity for males than it does for females, yet it is still indeed valid. Limitations Naturally, any study is limited by necessity in order to maintain manageability. There are several limitations of the present study. First, the decision to limit the population models to the intramural sport motivation model will restrict generalizability of results to models of motivations in the intramural sport participation in a northwestern university of the USA. Second, the sample size is not large enough for investigating the measurement and structural properties of the new PMQ model, particularly with AMOS program. Jackson (2001) recommended larger samples when there are large numbers of observed variables to be estimated. The limited sample size may have affected the reliability and validity of the statistical methods united and the results. Finally, the results of the current study should be taken as strong evidence in support of the interpretation process as a mechanism that links motivational outcomes. Implementation A measurement model for identifying the motivations of participating in the collegiate intramural sport was proposed as framework for the review of motivation research in sport, and a discussion of past and future research efforts in the area. Moreover, the research and practical implications of the findings and discussions are important, and there are several implementations of the present study. First, this study suggests that intramural sport managers can realize the relationships among the variables of motivational dynamics if an appropriate basis of the model is established. Second, motivational dynamics are not only concerned with the factors that influence students motivation in the intramural sports, but are also concerned with other forces in the diverse number of intramural sports that influence these patterns and interaction. Finally, this study will be important for the leaders of the collegiate intramural sport industry to understand the notions on motivational dynamics (Challenge/Skills, Fitness, Competition, Social/Teamwork, and Energy Release) which are important to participation in intramural sport.

9 MULTIPLE GROUPS CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVATIONAL 77 References Allender, S., Cowburn, G., Foster, C. (2006). Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies. Health Education Research, 21(6), Campitelli, M. (2000). Why students at Eastern Washington University choose to participate or not participate in intramural sports activities while at EWU. A thesis presented to Eastern Washington University, Colquitt, G., Pritchard, T., & McCollum, S. (2011). The personalized system of instruction in fitness education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 82(6), ?accountid=1557. Doulias, E., Kosmidou, E., Paulogiarinis, O., & Patsiaouras, A. (2005). Examination of participation motives in folk dance groups. Inquiries in Sport & Physical Education, 3(2), Dwyer, J. J. M. (1992). Informal structure of participation motivation questionnaire completed by undergraduates. Psychological Reports, 70, Fitzgerald, K. (June 16, 1997). Intramural interest. Advertising Age, 68(24), retrieved on July 29, 2009 from vid=3&hid=5&sid=1a37487a-09a4-4e12-bb cfe8db7b%40session - mgr11&bdata=jnnpdgu9ynnplwxpdmu%3d#db=buh&an= Gill, D. L., Gross, J. B., & Huddleston, S. (1983). Participation motivation in youth sports. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 14, Gill, D. L., & Williams, L. (2008). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. (3rd ed., pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gould, D., Feltz, D., & Weiss, M. R. (1985). Motives for participating in competitive youth swimming. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, Harkema, R., Dieser, R., Lankford, S., & Scholl, K. (2006). Perceived exercise constraints and motivation for exercise among university undergraduate students. ICHPER SD Journal, 42(1), Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1). Jackson, D. L. (2001). Sample size and number of parameter estimates in maximum likelihood confirmatory factor analysis: A montecarlo investigation. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(2). Klint, K. A., & Weiss, M. R. (1986). Dropping in and dropping out: Participation motives of current and former youth gymnasts. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 11, Klint, K. A., & Weiss, M. R. (1987). Perceived competence and motives for

10 78 SMIJ VOL. 8, Number 2, 2012 participating in youth sports: A test of Harter s competence motivation theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, Kolt, G., Driver, R., & Giles, L. (2004). Why older Australians participate in exercise and sport. Journal of Aging & Physical Activity, 12(2), Lindsey, R., & Sessoms, E. (2006). Assessment of a campus recreation program on student recruitment, retention, and frequency of participation across certain demographic variables. Recreational Sports Journal, 30, Park, S. R. (2005). A cross-cultural study of the motivational factors affecting individuals decision about participating in action sports between Korean college students and their American counterparts. International Journal of Eastern Sports & Physical Education, 3(1), Park, S. R., & Lee, S. (2008). Multiple groups confirmatory factor analysis of the motivational factors affecting individuals decisions about participating in action sports and an inquiry into participant action sports participatory fandom. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 3(4), Park, S. R., & Stotlar, D. K. (2006). A cross-cultural study of the action sports participatory fandom between Korean college students and their American counterparts,the ICHPERSD Journal of Research, 1(1), 5-9. Passer, M. W. (1988). Determinants and consequences of children s competitive stress. In F. Smoll, R. Magill, & M. Ash (Eds.), Children in sport (3 rd ed., pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Rickel, K., Stoll, S., & Beller, J. (2005). Effects of a life narrative-based exercise philosophy, internet-enhanced curriculum, on college participants subjective and objective exercise values. (Abstract). Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 76(1), A-107-a-108. Rickel, K., Stoll, S., & Beller, J. (2006). A life narrative-based exercise philosophy and curriculum for exercise adherence. (Abstract). Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 77(1), A-31-a-32. Rothwell, E., & Theodore, P. (2006). Intramurals and college student development: The role of intramurals on values clarification. Recreational Sports Journal, 30, Sax, L. J., Astin, A. W., Korn, W. S., & Mahoney, K. M. Cooperative Institutional Research Program, American Council of Education. (1995). Theamerican freshman: National norms for fall Retrieved from Higher Education Research Institute website: Norms/Monographs/TheAmericanFreshman1995.pdf Sit, C., & Lindner, K. (2007). Achievement goal profiles, perceived ability and participation motivation for sport and physical activity. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38(3), Steinbach, P. (2010, April). Hybrid student centers house multiple campus functionsathletic Business.

11 MULTIPLE GROUPS CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE MOTIVATIONAL 79 Tinto, V. (1988). The principles of effective retention.presentation to faculty and staff at Bowling Green University Wankel, L. M., & Kreisel, P. J. (1985). Factors underlying enjoyment of youth sports: Sport and age group comparisons. Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, Webber, D. J., & Mearman, A. (2009). Student participation in sporting activities. Applied Economics, 41(9), Weiss, M. R., & Chaumeton, N. (1992). Motivational orientations in sport. In T. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp ). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Yue-de, C., Wen-hao, J., & Ying-chun, W. (2009). Relationship between college students exercise motivation and the motivation and sticking exercise. Journal of Beijing Sport University, 32(3), 85. Address for correspondence: Karen F. Rickel, Ph.D., 502 E. Boone Ave. AD Box-25 Sport and Physical Education, Gonzaga University Spokane, WA Phone: (509) , Fax: (509)

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