Certified level of the S.C. Master Beekeepers program

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1 This curriculum guide serves as the model for the certified level of the South Carolina Master Beekeepers Program. The SC Master beekeeper Program is a multilevel program whereby a beekeeper can test his/her beekeeping knowledge. Certification is through the South Carolina Beekeepers Association (SCBA). Mid-State Beekeepers Association offers education and testing to facilitate its members obtaining certification in this, SCBA program. For more information regarding the Master Beekeeping Program please visit the SCBA website at: Mid-State Beekeepers Association offers more ways beekeepers can learn more about beekeeping. To find out how you can get connected with the many ways to continue your beekeeping education visit: 1

2 SC Beekeepers Association Certified Course Table of Contents page # COURSE OUTLINE 3 INTRODUCTION TO THE MASTER BEEKEEPER PROGRAM 4 RESOURCES FOR BEEKEEPERS 5 SELECTING THE APIARY SITE 6 STARTING A BEEHIVE 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE HONEYBEE 11 THE HONEYBEE FAMILY 13 PARTS OF A BEE 14 DISEASES AND PESTS 16 BUILDING EQUIPMENT - SMOKERS 24 INSTALLING A PACKAGE 26 WORKING WITH HONEYBEES 27 SEASONAL MANAGEMENT 31 SWARM CONTROL 34 THINGS BEES COLLECT 36 SOURCES OF NECTAR - FLOWERS 37 HONEY - USES AND PROPERTIES 40 MINOR PRODUCTS OF THE HIVE 42 HONEY PACKAGING AND LABELING 45 RAY CROCKER'S GREASE PATTY FORMULA 46 CAROLYN EHLE'S TIPS AND FORMULAS 47 QUEEN PROPAGATION RON RICHARD 49 BEE HIVE AUTOPSY CHART 50 BLOOM CHART - NECTAR PLANTS 51 2

3 COURSE OUTLINE Dates Session Topics Instructor Manual/Text* #1 Introduction Beginning Beekeeping Selecting an Apiary Site Pgs #2 Into to Honeybees History, Races, Biology Honeybees and pesticides Pgs #3 Getting Equipped Enter the Bees Pgs #4 Managing Honey Bee Colonies Taking the Crop Pg. 119 Pg. 158 #5 Disease and Pests of the Honey Bee Pgs #6 Swarms Packaging /Labeling Pg. 99 Pg. 158 #7 Things Bees Collect Sources of Nectar & Pollen Review & Certified Test (Written) Field Day TBD * Text First Lesson in Beekeeping from Dadant Local apiary 3

4 INTRODUCTION TO THE MASTER BEEKEEPER PROGRAM Beekeepers or Beehavers? COURSE DESCRIPTION\ The cost of this course is $45. It is open to anyone interested in learning about honey bees as a pollinator or becoming a beekeeper. This cost includes: course textbook, one year membership in the local association, one year membership in the SC association, reproductions/class notes, and the fee to take the certified SCBA level test. THE SC MASTER BEEKEEPERS PROGRAM This course serves as the training session for the certified level of the SC Master Beekeepers Program. The SC Master beekeeper Program is a multilevel program whereby a beekeeper can test his/her beekeeping knowledge. The four levels of the program are: Certified, Journeyman, Master, Master Craftsman You may take the written examination for the certified level of the Beekeeper Course Program after the last session of this course. Your participation in the program and the test is optional, but you are encouraged to participate. To complete the Certified Level course you must also pass a practical test after having successfully passed the written test. The practical test will be given once you have attained experience keeping bees for one year. The criteria for each level of the SC Master Beekeepers Program may be found on the SC Beekeepers web site at: 4

5 Resources for Beekeepers Bee Suppliers for equipment and/or packages of bees: Dwight Porter (SC) Bee Well Honey Farm (SC) Rossman Apiaries (GA) The Walter T. Kelley Co (KY) Mann Lake Ltd Dadant and Sons, Inc (VA, FL,KY) Brushy Mountain Bee Farm (NC) Miller Bee Supply Inc Carolina Bee Company (Travelers Rest) Dixie Bee Supply (Lancaster) C & T Bee Supplies (Aiken) office: , cell: Additional Resources: American Bee Journal (technical) Bee Culture Magazine Clemson South Carolina Beekeepers Georgia Beekeepers North Carolina Beekeepers Eastern Apicultural Society

6 Selecting an Apiary Site One of the most frequently asked question is "Where can I keep bees?" The answer is almost anywhere, from the rooftops of New York City to the desert areas of the southwest US. Some locations require additional care, such as providing shade and a constant water source in the desert areas, but a person can keep a few hives of bees almost anywhere. There are always exceptions, such as some municipalities that ban beekeeping. County ordinance No , city ordinance : bees may be kept if you have a singlefamily detached dwelling, no more than 4 hives on properties smaller than ½ acre and no more than 8 hives on properties > ½ acre. Hives shall be located no closer than 25 feet from a property line and a convenient source of water shall be provided on site. Regardless of where a person plans to keep bees, there are certain criteria that should be considered. These criteria will determine if beekeeping is possible in a location and also how many hives can be kept in any one location. Food: Nectar and pollen sources, bees will forage 2-3 miles from the hive. Water: Requirements for rural, suburban and urban areas can be quite different (drainage ditches, cow patties, bird baths). A good supply should be within 1/4 mile. Special considerations: You may have human or animal neighbors near the bee yard. Bees will use swimming pool or farm supply ponds, etc. The source of water for your beehive should be closer than the neighbor s pool, water feature, or birdbath; bees typically go to the closest water source. They seem to prefer dirty mineral rich sources. Sun/Shade exposure: Morning sun is recommended to get bees foraging early in the day. Full day sun is best for Small Hive Beetle control. Face the hive entrance south or east if possible. It is more important that the hive be on the south or east side of the hill/forest/etc. Wind and cold air layers: Try not to put in low areas, cold settles in low spots. A hillside is ideal for air drainage. Locate out of direct wind or install a windbreak (a hedgerow, fence or building). Predators: Bears Skunks and other varmints Man Visibility of apiary to the public Less visible makes it safer from vandalism, except in isolated areas. Within view of your home is best. 6

7 Accessibility Easy to drive to at all times of the year. Ideally want to be able to pull up directly behind your hive so you do not have to carry hives/equipment very far. Moving hives in/out, removing supers of honey, etc. Pesticides: Avoid if at all possible. They must be applied per label directions only. Sevin dust is extremely lethal to bees How many hives in an apiary? A minimum of two hives per location- Why? Want to be able to transfer frames of eggs, honey, etc. between hives if one of your hives is weak. How many hives per apiary? The usual recommendation is a maximum of hives at one location. This number can vary depending on the amount of bee forage. What determines the optimum number of hives for you? The amount of work you want to do (management, extracting, etc?) as well as available food sources. 7

8 STARTING A BEEHIVE Once the decision is reached to become a beekeeper, you must decide the best way of starting a beehive. You need to decide if you are going produce comb honey (no extractor investment) or liquid extracted honey before ordering equipment. There are a number of ways to obtain bees: swarms, established hive, package, or a nucleus hive (nuc). Types Pro Con Cost Swarm Queen with multi-aged workers; ½ of normal colony; free bees; ready to build comb Must catch ; older queen Time and effort only Established hive Already working colony; will make honey first year; less labor Possible disease or pests; deteriorated wooden ware, non-standard equipment Depends on size of hive; may cost >$250 Nucleus Colony (5 frames of working colony) Drawn comb; may make honey 1 st year; less labor May have old combs $90 - $140 Package (3-4 lbs. bees with mated queen) Lower cost than nuc Possible absconding; no drawn comb; bees and queen not from same hive $75 - $90 You must decide which of the above methods of obtaining bees will work for you. A future lecture will cover the step-by-step process of installing a package of bees into a beehive. 8

9 Preliminary Steps Contact your County Extension Agent, take a course, and find a mentor. Join a beekeeper association. Secure an Extension Service and commercial information, including periodicals, DVDs, internet. Secure a location for a bee yard - well drained, near road, water, morning or full day sun. Set goals: Commit to 8 hours (middle of the day) per hive per year. Secure equipment to work with hive: - Smoker Hive tool Bee veil, hat and suit Gloves Bee brush, turkey feather Frame Grip Secure hives, accessories, bees, etc. Hives-New or Used? New: Hive body, frames, wax or plastic foundation, feeder (entrance, hive top, baggie, soda bottle, and bucket), Queen excluder, two (2) shallow or medium supers with frames and foundation. Optional: Frame spacers and frame rests, frame perch, etc. Used: You may buy a disease-free colony in spring from another beekeeper instead of purchasing all new equipment. Ads in SC Market Bulletin, Craig s List, local bee association, etc. Miscellaneous: miticides, etc. sugar for syrup pollen substitute a new queen every two years - about $24.00 per hive. Other equipment: Frame rack and/or a workbench near the hive- small box or stool about the same height of the top of the first brood box to place supers and hives boxes on while working a hive. Swarm net or bucket to capture swarms with Honey-related equipment: Extractor Uncapping tank Hot knife and/or Capping Scratcher Five-gallon pail with gate valve Queen excluders-helpful in locating a queen. 9

10 A good way to get bees to go through the excluder is to place a super on the hive and wait about a week for them to start storing honey in the super then insert the excluder, or place a frame of brood above the excluder until they have started storing honey in the super. Some beekeepers suggest you place the excluder sideways to give workers more space to migrate the hives. Equipment needed for keeping 2 beehives Equipment # Deep Hive Body 2 Medium supers 6 Screened bottom board 2 Inner cover 2 Telescoping top 2 Frames (Wedge top, grooved bottom) Deep 9 1/8 20 Medium 6 1/4 60 Foundation (wired) Deep 9 1/8 20 Medium 6 1/4 60 Jacket with hood (hat/veil combo) 1 for each person working with the bees Gloves 1 pair for each person working with the bees Hive tool 1 Smoker 1 Brush (turkey feather) 1 Frame holder 1 optional Frame grabber 1 optional Wire Nails Cinder blocks 2/hive Queen excluder 2 optional Small Hive Beetle traps 2-4 optional Entrance reducer 2 optional 10

11 INTRODUCTION TO THE HONEYBEE HISTORY OF BEES AND BEEKEEPING Apis mellifera mellifera - 20 million years old early as 6000 BC men were robbing bees before 1600BC 1500 BC Egyptians using pots for hives Charles Butler- Queen is female Dec, 5, Virginia Co in London sent honeybees to the New World; Indians called them "White Man s Flies" 1682 Wheeler, trip to Greece, straw basket hives Lorenzo Langstroth from PA, used the 3/8 bee space to design hives with movable frames. Most advances in beekeeping occurred from 1851 to Charlie Moraz (deceased) in Vermont is father of American apitherapy, venom treatment especially for arthritis. Foundation and queen cages were developed by Benton. CLASSIFICATION OF HONEYBEES Phylum: Arthropoda- external skeleton, multi jointed legs Class: Insecta- adults have 6 legs Order: Hymenoptera-3 body regions: head, thorax & abdomen, 4 wings-bees, wasps, ants, etc Family: Apidae- honeybees, bumblebees, etc Genus: Apis Species: mellifera-other Apis species are Apis cerana, Apis dorsata, and Apis florae RACES (subspecies) Apis mellifera mellifera (German) black, mean, located especially near the coast, swarmy, susceptible to brood diseases, defensive, short tongue, brought in by settlers, for 200 yrs only one in US Apis mellifera carnica (Carniolan) Yugoslavian, dark, gentle, resistant to trachea mite, early Spring buildup, decrease brood in dearth, not good comb builders, can have excess swarming, Buckfast Apis mellifera caucasica (Caucasian) early 1900s from Russia, gray, excess propolis at entrance, longest tongue, gentle, slow Spring buildup, susceptible to EFB & Nosema Apis mellifera ligustic (Italian- one of the most gentle races) yellow or leather color, late 1840 s, less defensive, strong brood rearing, good housekeepers, good honey, lots of brood in winter, consumes large amounts of honey, bad for robbing, Cordovan type very light in color 11

12 Apis mellifera scutella (African- slightly smaller than the European bee), excess swarming, very defensive, less honey, arrived in South TX in 1990s, Varieties- some crosses: Buckfast, Midnight, Starline, Minnesota Hygienic, SMR (Suppression of Mite Reproduction), Smart strains, etc Main criteria for choosing races of Honeybees: Gentleness, disease resistance, and honey production. Other considerations: Spring buildup, over-wintering ability, swarming tendencies Comparison of bees and their traits Italian German Carniolan Buckfast Caucasian Russian Color Light Dark Black Medium Dark Gray Disease resistance Varroa Tracheal AFB* EFB** other Gentleness Mod Low High Low-mod High Low-mod Spring buildup Good Low Very good Low Very low Ok Over-wintering Good Very good Good Good Ok Very good ability Excess swarming Ok Ok High Low Low Ok Honey processing Very good Ok Good Good Low ok Propolis Low Ok Low Low High ok Other traits Heavy Long tongue robbing Short tongue, nice white cappings Low robbing, good comb builders *AFB = American foulbrood **EFB = European foulbrood Supersedure queens produce defensive colonies Brood rearing affected by flow, queen cells always present published by the NC Extension Service 12

13 HONEYBEE FAMILY Workers: Most of the bees in a colony are females, originating from fertilized eggs but not sexually developed. These bees (workers) do all the work of the hive. They have a defense mechanism (stinger). When the barbed stinger is used on humans or animals, it cannot be extracted and pulls part of her internal abdominal organs out. She dies. The average lifespan of an adult worker bee in the summer is six weeks, maybe 6 months in winter. Drones are males, originate from unfertilized eggs (a drone has no father but does have a grandfather) and are larger than the worker without a stinger, fed by the workers, and can drift from colony to colony (may carry disease and pests). Only a small percentage of the drones mate with a queen and then immediately die. The average lifespan of a drone bee is about three months. They cannot survive over a week if caged alone with no workers to feed them. Winter hives rarely contain any drones. Queen: Only one to a hive (ordinarily). She is the mother of all bees in the hive. The queen has a longer abdomen than the workers and drones. Within a week of emerging from her cell, she mates in the air with drones and stores the sperm in a special structure called a spermatothecia. She has a short curved, smooth stinger (no barbs like a worker) that she uses to sting other queens. The queen determines the sex of the egg as she lays it. She can lay up to 1200 eggs per day. The average productive life of a queen is about two years; however some have been know to live up to five years. LIFE CYCLE DIET OF THE HONEYBEE Stage Queen Worker Drone Egg 3 days 3 days 3 days Larvae Royal jelly: 5 days Royal jelly: 2-3 days Honey/pollen: 4-7 days Royal jelly: 2-3 days Honey/pollen: 6-9 days Capped pupae Royal jelly: 8-16 day Honey/pollen: 8-21 days Honey/pollen: days Adult emerges 16th or 17 th day 21 st day 24 th day 13

14 DUTIES of a WORKER BEE Chews wax cap open on her birth cell, dries out and learns to walk Days 1-3: Cleans cells Days 2-6: feeds 3 day and older bees and larvae Days 3-12: can make royal jelly for 0-3 day old worker and queen larvae Removes debris from the hive including corpses Makes wax, builds comb, caps cells House worker receives nectar from field worker and transfers it to hive cells Removes moisture from and ripens cells; 80% water in nectar, reduced to 18.6% = honey. Puts nectar in cells as a house worker while adding enzymes Field worker deposits pollen in cell and house worker packs in the pollen Fans wings to cool the hive and removes excess moisture Guards hive from intruders Days 21 until death: FIELD BEE Collects nectar Collects pollen Collects water Collects propolis (sweetgum, poplar, oak) - bee glue 14

15 PARTS OF A BEE Head 5 eyes: 2 compound, 3 simple (ocelli) Tongue (proboscis) Mandibles (mouth parts) Antennae (hears, smells, feels, tastes) Hypopharyngeal gland (makes royal jelly) Salivary gland Brain Thorax Six legs, multi-jointed & specialized Four wings (hooked together in pairs for flight) Dorsal aorta (heart) Salivary glands Ganglia (nerve Cells) Six spiracles & trachea (breathing apparatus), open respiratory system Abdomen Heart: top and length of abdomen Honey stomach (storage) True stomach (separate for digestion) Digestive system Poison gland and sac Stinger 12 spiracles and tracheae 8 wax glands Scent gland 15

16 DISEASES AND PESTS Various diseases and pests affect honeybees. In the successful management of bees, these diseases and pests must be controlled. The beekeeper must be able to correctly identify the problem and apply the appropriate treatment. Brood Diseases - Bacterial pathogens o AFB (American Foulbrood), EFB (European Foulbrood) - Fungal pathogens o Chalkbrood - Viral pathogens o Sacbrood - Bee PMS (Paralytic Mite Syndrome) American Foulbrood Motivation behind State Bee Inspection programs of the early 20th century; emits a foul, sulfurous odor, hence the name. Diseases American foulbrood (AFB) Organism-Paenibacillus larvae larvae (spore forming bacteria) Identification-Capped cells are concave. Occur any time of year Pin holes in the cappings, sunken caps, dark larvae instead of white Foul odor Open cells scattered Ropiness or toothpick test: Insert toothpick into the cell and pullout slowly 1 to see if the dead pupae is stringy, ropy and elastic. The dried brood leaves black scales and sometimes an extended tongue. 16

17 AFB infects the brood in the larvae stage. Spread: Robber bees can carry the disease into their own healthy hive. Honey and pollen from an infected hive is OK for human consumption, but cannot be fed back to the bees because of bacterial spore contamination to other hives. Drifting bees. Treatment Seal off a contaminated hive and remove from the yard; burn or bury. If you have fairly new equipment, the boxes, bottom board, inner cover and top can be scorched with a blowtorch or butane torch to kill the bacteria. Treat healthy hives with Terramycin for prevention, not a cure. European foulbrood (EFB) Organism - Melissococcus plutonius (non-sporeforming bacterium) Identification Spread Usually occurs in spring, rarely kills colony Larvae are twisted and die in the larvae stage-does not have the ropiness of dead brood which is characteristic of AFB. Treatment Transmitted by nurse bees. A good honey flow will cause EFB to disappear. Terramycin can be applied as a preventive measure. Introducing a potentially more prolific queen is advocated as a treatment, but more importantly, the break in the brood cycle provides nurse bees with the opportunity to remove affected larvae and polish the cells. Isolating the queen with a four-inch push-in cage for one week would also break the brood cycle. 17

18 Chalk brood Organism - Fungus Ascosphaera apis Brood dies in larval stage. Caused by damp environment. Identification: the mummified brood looks like white chalk, found in brood cells and at hive entrance. Treatment - No chemotherapeutic agent is available for the control of chalkbrood. Should requeen and make sure hives are not in damp areas. Sac brood Organism Virus, rare stress disease Identification Larvae die and develop hard exterior, can be removed in one piece. Partially uncapped cells scattered among the capped brood. Capped cells remaining after surrounding brood has emerged Partially capped or uncapped cells with characteristic darkened heads. Spread - not considered a serious threat Treatment - The adult bees usually remove the infected brood. Also need to requeen. Nosema Organism - Nosema apis; protozoan and Nosema ceranae. 18

19 Identification Disjointed wings Distended abdomens and the absence of stinging reflex. Bees crawling around in the hive and in the grass in front of the hive (unable to fly) have been found to be infected by Nosema in some cases and afflicted by other disorders in other cases. A honey bee ventriculus (gut) is normally straw brown and the individual circular constrictions are clearly seen. When the ventriculus is white, soft in consistency, and swollen, obscuring the constrictions, Nosema can be definitely suspected and most likely are heavily infected and beyond help. Treatment Spread Spores must be swallowed by a honeybee for the infection to be initiated. -disease peaks in the early spring and adult populations dwindle Treatment with Fumidil-B in the fall and spring is recommended to prevent Nosema. Others Hairless Black Syndrome: no hair on thorax because healthy bees try to remove sick bees and pull their hair out. The sick bees have a virus. There is no cure for it, interbreeding promotes it. Requeen. 19

20 Pests Tracheal Mites Organism - Acarapis woodi afflicts only the adult honeybees. 'The life cycle of a tracheal mite is almost entirely in the tracheal tubes of a honeybee. The mated female enters the tracheae of a young adult bee, lays eggs, which produce young male and female tracheal mites. These mate and the female mites leave the tracheal of the now older bee and attaches itself to a young adult bee and the cycle repeats its self. Effect on bee and colony Detection Treatment Sucks blood from bee Decrease in the population of the hive Disjointed wings - "K" wings Distended abdomen Unable to fly, bees crawling on grass in front of hive falling down Menthol Crystals (Mit-a-thol r ) should be enclosed in a 7" x 7" porous plastic bag and placed on the top bars of the brood frames for 20 to 25 days if the daytime temperature does not exceed 80 F. During hot weather, the menthol should be placed on the bottom board. Grease patties are recommended to control Tracheal mites. Make patties about 3½ in diameter and ½ thick by mixing two parts sugar to one part solid shortening and place on the top of the brood frames over the brood nest. These grease patties can be left on the hive year round except in the hottest part of the summer. 20

21 Varroa Mites Organism - Varroa destructor external parasite Originated in Asia, prior to1970 transported to Europe, Africa and to South, Central and North America. In 1987 discovered in Wisconsin found in Saluda County, SC. Life cycle The adult mated female mite leaves the adult honeybee and crawls into a brood cell when the bee larvae is 5½ days old, preferably a drone cell, where she feeds on the larvae by sucking (not chewing) the hemolymph (or blood). She lays eggs sixty hours after cell capping and 7 to 8 days later, one to six additional adult Varroa mites continue to feed on the pupae and mate in the cell. Adult females leave the cell with the emerging bee. They transfer through close contact between bees and from colony to colony by drifting worker bees and drones. Effect on bee and colony One or two mites will cause a decrease in vitality of the emerging bee. Higher numbers of Varroa per cell result in malformations like deformed legs, misshapen wings, and shortened abdomens or even in the death of the pupae. Detection 1. Watch for bees crawling in the hive, on the landing board and in front of the hive with some of the malformations listed above. 2. Ether Roll: Collect 300 bees from the brood nest in a quart jar with a lid (be sure you don't have the queen in the jar); Add ether (starting fluid). Shaking the bees for about one minute will dislodge about 90% of the mites. Count the mites. 3. Powdered Sugar roll: collect bees as above, add 2 tablespoons powdered sugar. Shake/roll until bees are coated. Let sit for 1-2 minutes. Release bees. Pour out sugar and mites onto a white surface. Count mites 4. Sticky board: (use Vaseline rather than Pam) underneath a screen on the bottom of the hive and count varroa the next day. The threshold is about 187 mites in August. (Dr. Hood uses 115). If more than this, use treatment. 5. Open some of the drone brood cells, remove, and examine for Varroa mites. 6. Testing eliminates unnecessary treatments saving money and preventing resistance. 21

22 Treatment Treatments should be used when the economic injury threshold is reached. Treatment: Apistan strips (10% fluvalinate), read directions on box. Basically 2 strips per hive body placed at defined intervals when daytime high temperatures reach at least 50 degrees and leave in for days (6-8 weeks) as needed. In upper SC, place by mid to late Feb so they can be removed prior to a nectar flow. Also treat the 1 st week in August after honey supers have been removed. The August treatment is the most crucial. Or use CheckMite+ strips (10% coumaphos, organic phosphate), read directions on box for similar placement and maybe fewer days treatment. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system: Sscreened bottom boards. Drone cell foundation to capture mites, then remove frame and freeze. Thymol products, ie, Apilife (76% thymol), Apiguard, hopguard; oxalic acid, formic acid, and powdered sugar are other varroa treatment alternatives. Suppression Mite Reproduction (SMR) queen or Russian queen: Re-queen for resistance. If not treated, the varroa would eventually kill its host and only the varroa resistant bees would be left. However, you may lose 90% of your bees before the problem would be solved. Some beekeepers choose not to treat and let the bees develop their own resistance. Small Hive Beetle, Athenia tumida Organism: beetles co-habit with bees and destroy comb. They came from South Africa. They were first collected in Charleston, SC in They arrived in Oconee County about

23 Life Cycle: Eggs are laid in comb. Larvae consume pollen & comb and destroy wax, then crawl into ground and pupate completing their life cycle in days. Effects on Bee Colonies: fermenting honey may force bees to leave the colony when it gets bad. Beetles over winter in the cluster to stay warm; only adult beetles over winter Detection: can see with naked eye, esp. when first opening the top cover. Look for them quickly before they run to a dark crevice; check the corners of bottom board and along crevices next to top end bars. Bounce top super on overturned top and SHB adults dislodge from frames and can be observed running for hiding place. Mash with hive tool. Treatment: Use CheckMite+. Follow manufacturers instructions o Ground treatment with GuardStar (40% pyrethrum) in June or July to break the life cycle by killing the pupae. o Predatory nematodes o In hive traps: Hood beetle traps, Freeman traps, Beetle jail, beetle blaster, etc Wax Moths 1. Organism: Galleria mellonella; Moth larvae destroy comb and equipment 2. Life Cycle: Moth flies into equipment in evening and lay eggs. Larvae eat the comb, pollen, & honey. 3. Effects on Bee Colonies: A strong hive of bees will clean out the moth eggs and larvae and keep wax moths from multiplying. A weak hive may be overtaken by wax moths. Their webbing, and cocoons that may be tunneled in the wax or wood structures. Wax moths are especially a problem for stored equipment. 4. Detection: obvious upon inspection. Wax moth larvae are larger than honeybee larvae. 5. Treatment: Wax moths are a secondary problem for honey bee hives, as strong hives will not tolerate their presence but remove them. Manage bees such that they remain strong. Since wax moths like dark, non-ventilated areas, store empty supers in light, ventilated areas. Fire ants can also be used near stored equipment to discourage the presence of wax moths. Empty supers can be run through a freezer for 48 hours to kill eggs, and then stored by stacking. Para-dichlorobenzene (PDB crystals or Para-moth) may be used in the top super of stacked boxes. Be sure to air out for 24 hours before placing supers back on the hive. 6. Traps: wax moth traps are made from 2 liter soda bottles by cutting a small hole near the top and adding 1 cup 1:1 sugar syrup, 1 cup apple cider vinegar and 1 banana peel. OTHER 23

24 Missing Queen: Replace queen immediately before bee population dwindles and other problems occur. Drone layer: In the absence of a queen, worker honeybees may become a laying worker. She will lay unfertilized eggs, often multiple ones per cell. The queen lays only 1 egg per cell. Laying-worker eggs are unfertilized and become drones. EQUIPMENT Building BROOD BOXES AND SUPERS Years ago, beekeepers used skeps, bee gums (hollow logs) and boxes with cross-sticks to support the comb. With this arrangement, you could not inspect the brood as you can with the Langstroth movable frames. Some people like to build their own equipment and some would rather buy their equipment. Either way, there will be some assembly work involved. First, if you want to make your own, look at the sketches of all the parts of a standard hive and remember that every part must be exactly to the proper dimensions. All hive equipment should be of the modern Langstroth type with hanging, movable frames. 1. Brood Box (for rearing brood) and Supers (for storing honey) Apply wood cement (Elmer's wood glue does fine) to the edges and attach both ends and sides together. Check to make sure the corners are square, then nail or screw together. Next, paint the outside of the boxes and top and bottom edges. Do not paint the inside; the bees will paint the inside with propolis. Painting the hive prolongs the life of the equipment and if you use different colors, the bees can identify their own hive. You can paint all of the hives white (or the same color) and use symbols on the front of the hive for the bees to identify their hive. 2. Excluder An assembly with parallel wires wide enough for worker bees to pass through, but not wide enough for the queen to get through, thus excluding the queen from laying eggs in the supers. 3. Bottom Board Paint the outside surfaces and edges of the bottom board and the landing board back past the entrance of the hive. 24

25 4. Inner Cover: The inner cover needs no paint 5. Telescoping Top The outside and inside surfaces and edges of the cover should be painted, but don't paint the underside of the cover. Painting the metal covering of the telescope top is optional. FRAMES 1. Frame Assembly Apply wood glue to the end bar before attaching to the top bar. After fitting the two end bars to the top bar, put two nails in each end bar down through the top bar. Put a third nail in each end bar into the solid side of the top bar; this will prevent the end bar from coming loose in case the end bars and/or bottom bars get glued down with propolis. Apply glue to the ends of the bottom bar where it fits into the bottom of the sidebars. Place two nails in each end of the bottom bar into the end bars. 2. Installing Foundation Comb Remove the wedge strip from the underside of the top bar (the wedge is precut, but still attached to the top bar). Trim the rough edges from the wedge and inside of the wedge seat in the top bar. Drive two small finish nails (about 8 P) about ½" apart into a small board or the workbench to use for spreading the slot in the bottom bar. Place the bottom bar of the frame over the two nails and turn the frame 180º to open the bottom bar enough to insert the foundation comb. Place the foundation comb into the frame a) with the crimped wire up and the ends of the wire pointing away from the frame and b) the bottom of the foundation comb inside the slot of the bottom bar. Note; Disregard a) above if using foundation without wire. While holding the foundation in place, insert the wedge and place three nails at a 45º angle into the top bar, or use a staple gun to attach the wedge in place. 3. Installing Frames in Hive When using foundation comb in a ten frame hive, install ten frames and when the comb is drawn out remove one frame; leaving nine frames. Space evenly in super. This gives more room to work the hive and prevent "rolling" bees when removing a frame. Some beekeepers run ten frames in their brood box and 9 frames in the honey super. SMOKER 25

26 The smoker is one of the beekeeper's most valuable and useful tools when working with bees. The smoke has a soothing affect on the bees that helps keep them calm while working them. Types of fuel are very important while working with bees. You want a fuel that will produce a cool smoke and that is non-toxic. You also want a fuel that will stay lit and ready for use when you need it. Smoker Selection a) Select a smoker that is suitable for your needs. b) There is a small smoker called the "Hobbyist" for beekeepers with one or two hives which is 8¾" high and 3½" in diameter with a wire guard that prevents touching the hot chamber. c) The one most suitable for beekeepers with three to ten hives is the medium size that is 9½ high and 4" in diameter with a wire guard. d) For beekeepers with ten hives or more, the larger smoker, which is 11" high and 4" in diameter, may be better suited; this smoker also has the wire guard that prevents touching the hot chamber. Smoker Fuel a. Smoker fuel that is noted for providing a cool smoke and staying lit longer b. Pine needles give a good smoke and stay lit very well. c. Burlap (from old feed sacks) makes a good smoke and stays lit very good. Lighting the Smoker After selecting the smoker and fuel you may want have something for a starter, like the paper that comes off of foundation comb. Light the starter (foundation comb paper or cotton yarn). If the wind is blowing, hold your match and the starter down in the top of the smoker to get it lit. Add a little cedar chips, burlap or pine needles and give the smoker several puffs to get the fuel going real good, and then pack plenty of fuel in on top of this. Now give your smoker several good puffs again and leave for five minutes: if your smoker is still lit and giving a good smoke, you passed the test. Installing a package of bees Have the hive ready for the bees. The best time to get them is in the early spring The best time of the day to install the package is in the late afternoon. Locate the hive in its permanent location. Remove 3-4 center frames from the hive. 26

27 Spray the package of bees lightly with sugar water before opening to wet the bee s wings to prevent flying. Remove the syrup can from the package. Remove the queen (in the shipping cage) and place it in a safe place temporarily. Turn the package upside down and gently shake the bees into the hive. Remove the cork from the candy end of the shipping cage and place the queen into the hive by pressing the cage into the side of a frame of comb with the screen wire outward and the candy end upward to prevent dead attendants from stopping up the exit. Check back in 3-5 days to see if the queen has been released, if not release her if it appears the bees have accepted her. Working with Honeybees THINKING LIKE A BEE Temperature regulation Bees cluster at 57 F, brood must maintain F, adult bees tolerate fluctuations in temps no lungs, breathe through tracheae/spiracles Instinct to hoard food, social insects Five Senses Hearing Bees are basically deaf but can hear limited frequencies use sense organs on knees and antennae to a lesser extent to hear feel sounds piping multiple hatched queens fight one queen works wing muscle through body to feet to make piping noise high pitch which attracts another queen and two queens fight Quacking: one queen in cell makes sound to attract other queen; sounds like quacking Sounds in the hive indicate conditions of the hive, such as queenlessness, preparing to swarm, disease, etc. Using the bee's sense of hearing to the beekeepers advantage. - Work gently, don't bump, slam or beat the hive. - Tapping on an empty hive to attract a swarm into the hive is called "drumming them in". - Banging: in today s context one bangs two pieces of metal together to get swarm to land; belief derived from the Roman trespass laws. When someone was following a swarm, the banging announced ownership of the swarm 27

28 Sight/Vision a. Bees have 5 eyes - 3 ocilli in the top center of their head used as light receptors to tell them when to leave hive in morning and return later - 2 compound eyes one on each side of head. The drone s eyes are larger and touch b. Humans see form and shape; bees see brokenness and motion: Bees can t see difference between square and triangle but can see the difference between X /+ and square/diamond Deck of playing cards is a good example for shapes a. Bees can see Blue, Blue green, Yellow and Ultraviolet; red looks like a shade of gray more yellow flowers in Europe; more red flowers in the Americas d, Navigation: work off sun, use Ultraviolet light on cloudy days bees in the middle hives of a row of same color hives make more mistakes unless have color/shapes to help out, will drift Queens on mating flights are prone to go into the wrong hive, especially if they are positioned in a straight row. Touch use antennae: e.g. - when want to be groomed, bee touches another bee with antennae; food passing Drone s tongue is shorter than worker s & do not have honey stomach; ask/get food from sister workers. Taste salt; bees don t need salt; have a high threshold, do need minerals sour: less sensitive than humans bitter: less sensitive than humans - for humans a warning something is wrong. Humans live longer and have a more chance of building up metals, etc.; humans sense with side of tongue Sweet: threshold of humans and bees similar; humans sense with tip of tongue; if taste sugar syrup and it is sweet to you, it will be sweet to the bees. 5. Smell - most important bee sense; critical to interact with environment - smell with antennae 28

29 - nectar/odor used by plant to attract pollinators - hive odor - pheromones (chemicals produced by animals having specific affects on same species) - queen has greater than 32 pheromones; called queen substance - pheromones produced by: laying workers, mating, young, workers - drone - no pheromones identified - attractant (aggregation) pheromone o smells like lemon oil o produced from gland on top and near end of abdomen o use while swarming to make path to new home - alarm pheromone o released by guard bees sting intruder and mark sting site with this pheromone o smells like finger nail polish remover (not acetone) o if get stung, use smoker to dilute/mask - reduce number of stings by: o avoid looking like bear (dark clothes, fuzzy clothes, rough finish) o hot spots (around elastic) o motion(move slow without quick jerky motions) o take off jewelry, especially leather watch bands o blinking eyes without a veil on o don t bang things o don t stay in colony any longer than have to o work bees from 09:00 to about 2 hours before sunset, generally 10-2 pm) o clean hive tool and hands before going into hive. WHAT DO THEY LIKE/DISLIKE? We may never understand all about the honeybees but we can learn to respect many things about them. They like to work; in fact they work themselves to death. They will try to protect their home when invaded, wouldn't you? They don't like to be jarred, slammed and beat around, so when working with bees, be very gentle with them; don t get in a hurry. Bees don t like smells of paint thinner and bananas WORKING THE HIVE. The best time to work a colony is from 10:00AM to 2:00PM. This gives the foragers time to leave the hive (less congestion in the hive). Before opening a hive for any reason, always give them a little smoke in the entrance and also when you pry open the inner cover give a few gentle puffs of smoke. If you are looking for the queen, smoke the bees sparingly, because the smoke alarms her and will cause her to run, she will sometimes run to the dark corners of the hive to hide. 29

30 Always remove the old queen before introducing a new queen then allow the workers to release her after 3-4 days exposure to the colony. When removing brood frames, always remove an outside frame first to avoid rolling the Queen and injuring her. This is very important because you could roll the queen. After removing the outside frame, move the frames over gently to give room to remove the other frames safely. Learn to discern the condition of the hive by reading the brood comb. Look for a well-rounded pattern of brood. Learn what normal is for that time of year. Do they have any signs of disease, i.e. dead brood, chalk brood, scattered brood (empty cells), wax worms, etc. Are there fresh eggs? Are the eggs standing straight up in the bottom of the cell; the eggs stand straight up in the cell and gradually lay down after the second day if laid by a queen, or do the cells have three or four eggs in the cell, piled up like stove wood which would indicate a laying worker. Are there excessive drone cells? Are the bees crowded (especially in the spring)? Congestion often leads to swarming. Always replace the frames the same way you found them unless you have a specific purpose for doing otherwise. If the hive is honey bound (no room for the queen to lay), remove the outside frames that usually have no brood and replace with empty comb in the center. They should never have less than 15 pounds of honey. You may want to replace some of the old comb that the cells have reduced in size as a result of many generations of cocoons in them. Rotate out old combs every 3-5 years. Dating frames helpful. Try to avoid windy and rainy weather to go into your hives, these conditions irritate them. Be sure the temperature is above 55 degrees before going into the hive. Bees begin to cluster at 57 degrees. Some bees may fly outside the hive at 45 degrees if sunny and no wind. MEDICATON (see Management Calendar for schedules of medication). For medication use consult the manufacturer s instructions. FEEDERS. (Used to apply sugar syrup as food supplement or to medicate.) Top feeder has one or two compartments (about 2 gallons each) with access from the brood chamber up through the end or middle and is placed on top of the hive between the brood box and the top cover. Boardman feeder is a small assembly that holds a Mason jar of sugar syrup and is placed on the landing board and protrudes inside the front of the hive. Usually not recommended since bees cannot get to the Boardman feeder in cold weather and it also causes robbing. These feeders may also be used for water. Baggie feeder: plastic zip lock bag containing sugar syrup in placed directly on top of the frames in the brood chamber or super. Only fill ¾ full. Cut several small slits 1 inch or more from edges for bees to feed. Helps insulate cluster in winter. Bucket / Pail feeder/quart/gallon glass jar/recycled plastic soda bottle is placed on top of the inner cover over the brood chamber or in a specially cut outer cover. 30

31 SEASONAL MANAGEMENT-BEEKEEPERS CALENDAR Revised January 26, 2009 for Lakelands area. January 1 st to January 15 th Build equipment to meet coming year s plans. It s too late when swarms are hanging in the tree or your last super is full and the bees are hanging outside the hive. First warm day, ie, 50 + degrees, check for adequate stores for each hive, quick lift from back. If feeding required: use a gallon bag placed directly on the frames of the top super with a feeding ring. Use three quarts of heavy syrup. Once started feeding will be required until the spring nectar flow begins sometime in March. After two bags of heavy syrup (7-8 lbs sugar: 1 gal hot water), reduce to light syrup (1 lb. sugar to 1 pint hot water). If needed install Apistan or Check Mite strips in each hive body for Varroa Mites and leave for days. Use Grease Patties for Tracheal mite treatment. January 15th to February 1st Check honey and pollen stores. If low on pollen (usually new hives) feed pollen substitute as population starts increasing. Existing hives are usually OK with pollen. If low on honey (less than 35 #) feed syrup via pail feeder, hive top feeder, or baggie. See directions above. February 1 st If needed (Nosema is very rare in SC). Medicate with Fumidil-B for Nosema control. Follow label directions Medicate with Terramycin to treat for American Foul brood and European Foul brood. Mix one pound of ATM-10 with two pounds of pulverized cane sugar, or use Terra-Brood-readymixed product. Apply two teaspoons per hive three times at three to four day intervals to the end bars of the frames next to the brood chamber. Stop treatment before the nectar flow is sufficient to build up surplus honey. Check the honey supply on each hive and feed sugar syrup if the hive has less than half a 31

32 super of honey. Mix ten pounds of sugar to one gallon of water. Suggest top feeders, either double chamber or pail feeder until sufficient nectar is available. February 15 th Verify that hives have enough honey. When building up population, this is the time that most hives starve. Remove all medication. Install grease patties; (Two parts cane sugar to one part Crisco) to control Tracheal mites; leave on year round. Place bait hives to catch new swarms. Each bait hive should have one vial of pheromone bee attractant and should be positioned eight to nine feet above ground level. Ensure that your honey supers are ready to place on the hives. March 1st to March 15th (Temperature above 60ºF) Check for queen cells and cut them out or call Ray to share with another beekeeper; repeat every ten days for four times. Supercedure cells (half way up the frames should be left). Exchange brood boxes if two exist, or add 2nd if only one exists and two brood boxes are used. Place the new hive body above the existing brood box. Some beekeepers prefer one brood box. Check the brood cells and replace frames with excessive drone cells and excessively small (old) worker cells. Install supers on all hives; on strong hives, install four supers if the frames have drawn out comb, or two supers if frames have foundation comb. Weak or medium hives should receive fewer supers accordingly. April 1 to June 1: This is the time for most of the State s honey flows; little earlier on the coast and a little later in the mountains. Make sure the hives have enough supers and honey storage space. Top supering is usually recommended. Major nectar flow in Lakelands area the second week of April. Honey is made in our area from April until the end of May. Time to make splits if desired. Remember splitting reduces honey production. Good splits require a good nectar flow and the availability of Drones. Check for viability of queen and brood pattern. Requeening fixes lots of problems. Keep an eye on the activity of the hive. Sudden changes may indicate a problem. Large amounts of dead or dying bees in front of hive points to a pesticide kill. This can occur in less than a day. A gradual build up of dead bees, over a week or more, would be more like a heavy varroa load. You may also see deformed bees being dragged from the hive. Foul brood will manifest itself as a gradual reduction of bees with the characteristic ropey cells material and a strong unpleasant odor. Check for swarming June 15th to July 1st Sourwood season starts in the mountains (June 15 th ) Harvest honey crop. Replace wet supers on the hives for the bees to clean up; Place one empty super (with no frames) between wet supers and the hive. Remove dry supers for storage. Supers should be stacked tightly with paradiclorabenzene crystals on a plate between each five supers. Remember that the fumes from the moth crystals 32

33 move downward as they evaporate. Duct tape can be used to seal the crack between the supers. July 1 st to July 15 th In necessary, treat with Apistan / Check Mite/ApiLife/ApiVar/formic acid for Varroa Mites. Follow product instructions. August 15 th through September 15 th Requeen with good queens and remove all treatments after days from installation. September 15 th Medicate with Terramycin to treat for American Foul brood European Foul brood. Mix one pound of ATM-I0 with two pounds of pulverized cane sugar, or use Terra-Brood-ready-mixed product. Apply two teaspoons per hive three times at three to four day intervals. Check Grease patties and replace if necessary to control Tracheal Mites. Mix two parts cane sugar to one part Crisco to control Tracheal Mites; Place one patty per brood box and leave on year round. September and October Combine weak hives. Be sure to remove the weaker or least desirable of the two queens. October 1st Reduce the hive entrance to 3/8" to prevent mice from entering the hive. Ventilate the hive with a 1/8" crack at the front of the inner cover. October 15th (After the first frost) Medicate with Fumidil-B for Nosema control. Follow label directions November and December Now is the time to make repairs on your equipment, assemble new equipment and make some of those time saver gadgets. December to February (Preferably just after Christmas when the temperature is above 50 F.) Feed pollen substitute; one and a half pounds per hive. Mixture; Three parts soybean meal, one part dried brewer's yeast and one part powdered milk. You might find it is less expensive to buy the ready mix. Refer to Carolyn s Glop recipe or use dry pollen substitute. MegaBee is suggested as best pollen substitute fed dry (coffee can) or in patties. Sugar syrup can be made in three different formulas, each has its own special purpose and is used at a specific time of the year. 1:2 this formula is very light syrup, it is made using one part of sugar to two parts of water. For example, 1 cup sugar to 2 cups of water. It is used in late winter and early spring to stimulate the queen to lay eggs. 1:1 this formula is a medium weight syrup, it is made using one part of sugar to one part of water. For example, 1 cup of sugar to 1 cup of water. It is used as an artificial nectar 33

34 to feed brood larvae in spring and summer or to get the bees to draw comb. 2:1 this formula is very heavy syrup, it is made using two parts of sugar to one part of water. For example, 2 cups of sugar to 1 cup of water. It is used in fall or early winter as a honey substitute to feed your bees. A 5 pound bag of granulated sugar contains 10 cups. SWARM CONTROL A. SWARMS from Buildings Bees can also be removed from buildings by "funneling them out"... First, seal off all entrances and exits but one. Then make a funnel out of screen wire and attach over the entrance with the funnel pointed upward, so a dead bee will not fall into the exit and block it. Place an empty hive with one frame of brood with fresh eggs in the hive, or better still, place a queen on a frame with emerging brood near the entrance with the screen. When the bees come out to forage, they can't get back into their hive, so they turn aside and take residence in the hive with the queen and frame of brood, which becomes their new home. This takes about a month to six weeks to remove the bees. Seal up the entrance when you remove the screen. The old queen and a few workers that are left in the building will die out. B. DETECTING SWARM PREPARATIONS BY THE BEE COLONY 1. The bees as a result of overcrowding, weak pheromones of the queen or failing queen initiate Queen Cells. a. Queen pheromones are restricted by congestion in the hive as a population grows and the queen's inhibiting influence declines. b. The queen's pheromones may become weak as she ages. c. Queen pheromones may become weak as she depletes her store of sperm. d. Spotty patterns of brood are an indication of a failing queen. 2. Destroying Queen Cells as a Method of Reducing Swarming Start checking about the 1st of March if the weather is warm enough (60 ) and continue checking every 10 days for four times. 3. The attendants reduce the queen s diet to slim her down in preparation for flying when they swarm, which also reduces her egg laying ability. Careful inspection of the brood comb should be evident of this "slow down" which results in a reduction of fresh eggs. C. CLIPPING THE MATED QUEEN'S WINGS SO THAT SHE CANNOT FLY AS A METHOD OF REDUCING SWARMING Clipping the wings of the queen does not prevent swarming, but it may prevent the queen from flying with the swarm. It only delays swarming. When this happens, look very carefully in front of the hive they swarmed from. You may not find her the first time you check, but keep checking until you find her (she may not have left the hive with the swarm). If you don't find her, she will crawl off and eventually be eaten by ants. D. THE VALUE OF MARKING QUEEN BEES IN BEE MANAGEMENT, INCLUDING SWARM CONTROL. 34

35 Marking the queen will have no influence on swarming, but it will let you know that your marked queen has died or left with a swarm when you find the queen in your hive has no mark. E. CONFINING THE MATED QUEEN AS METHOD OF REDUCING SWARMING Once the queen has laid eggs in the queen cells, some expert beekeepers maintain the colony is determined to swarm. The best thing to do now, is to make them think they have swarmed. Remove the queen and place her in a queen cage. Next, reverse the hive bodies and place a queen excluder between the two brood chambers. Remove all queen cells from the bottom brood box except one, and leave at least one frame of brood with no larva less than four days old. Remove all the queen cells from the top brood box and one or two frames of honey from each side of the top brood box and replace them with empty frames of comb in the center of the box. Now release the queen into the top brood chamber. Wait about two weeks, then check to see if the new queen is laying in the bottom brood box, and there are no queen cells in the bottom box, if so, remove the old queen from the top brood box and dispose of her. After about one more week, remove the queen excluder and add supers as needed. F. TWO MANAGEMENT SCHEMES THAT WILL REDUCE SWARMING 1. Requeening on a two year cycle 2. Reversing the Hive Bodies in the Spring (Spring Reversal). Since bees have a tendency to move up in the hive, reversing the hive bodies gives the queen more room to lay. Demaree method. G. OVER CROWDING 1. The Best Time to Prevent Swarming is before the bees start building queen cells. Make sure there is plenty of empty space in the brood chamber for the queen to lay eggs. Start Adding supers about the 1 st of March to prevent them from storing too much honey in the brood chamber. If needed, remove outside frames with honey & pollen and insert empty frames in the center. (Equalizing). 2. Queen cells are initiated by over crowding because the queen pheromones are restricted by congestion as populations grow, therefore, the queen's inhibiting influence declines because the crowded condition prevents the worker bees from passing the queen pheromones adequately throughout the hive. H. WHAT TO DO IF YOUR PRECAUTIONS FAIL AND THE BEES STILL SWARM 1. Collecting the Swarm at its Interim Site a. A Swarm net with a drawstring on a pole with adjustable length helps get to swarms in trees. b. Swarm box with a false bottom is helpful when the swarm is to be merged with another hive. c. Swarm box with vacuum attachments is used to get bees when you remove a swarm from a building where the inside wall has to be removed. d. It is best to move bees the Same Day or Night if the swarm is caught in the same apiary that the colony will be permanently located 2. Collecting the Swarm at its New Permanent Site The colony should be moved to its permanent location after dark when all the bees are in the hive. 3.Deciding whether to combine the swarm with its parent colony or starting a new hive of 35

36 bees. It is best to combine a new swarm into a hive (preferably a weak hive) other than the parent hive. THINGS BEES COLLECT Honeybees collect more materials than just nectar and pollen; however, the materials that they collect can be generally divided into just four major categories; water, propolis, pollen and nectar. With the exception of water, all of the categories are of plant origin and this is one more example of the close relationship between honeybees and plants. PROPOLIS AND POLLEN (see Minor Products of the Hive, page 42) WATER Honeybees like all living animals require water, but some uses of this material may be a little surprising. Uses of water in the hive: Water is used for cooling the hive in hot weather and maintaining a constant relative humidity (about 70%) in the hive. Feeding the brood by diluting the honey. Water is not stored. NECTAR Nectar is the sweet (sugary) exudates from the nectarines of flowering plants that attracts bees and other insects to the flowering plants and may result in the pollination of the plants. Foraging bees collect nectar and transfer to house bees, who storage it in the hive. The nectar is converted into honey via a physical process, drying, and a chemical process that introduces enzymes and some minerals into the honey. Nectar/honey serves as the primary source of food for the adult bee and the brood. Collection of nectar "substitutes" by honeybees; High Fructose Corn Syrup, sugar syrup. Bees communicate where the nectar source is by dancing. Circle or round dance indicates source is 11 yards or less away. Figure-8, waggle dance or wag-tail (shivering) is 15 yards to 4 miles away. Faster movement = closer food source, slower movement = farther away food source. Direction of the dance tells other worker bees if the food source is between the hive and the sun, opposite side of hive from the sun or at some angle from the sun and hive. 36

37 37

38 SOURCES OF NECTAR Flowers Parts of a typical flower Flowers typically are composed of four parts, or whorls, arranged in concentric rings attached to the tip of the stem. From innermost to outermost, these whorls are the (1) pistil, (2) stamens, (3) petals, and (4) sepals. Pistil: The innermost whorl, located in the center of the flower, is the female reproductive structure, or pistil. Often vase-shaped, the pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The stigma, a slightly flared and sticky structure at the top of the pistil, functions by trapping pollen grains, the structures that give rise to the sperm cells necessary for fertilization. The style is a narrow stalk that supports the stigma. The style rises from the ovary, a slightly swollen structure seated at the base of the flower. Depending on the species, the ovary contains one or more ovules, each of which holds one egg cell. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds, while the ovary enlarges into the fruit. If a flower has only one ovule, the fruit will contain one seed, as in a peach. The fruit of a flower with many ovules, such as a tomato, will have many seeds. An ovary that contains one or more ovules also is called a carpel, and a pistil may be composed of one to several carpels. Stamens: The next whorl consists of the male reproductive structures, several to many stamens arranged around the pistil. A stamen consists of a slender stalk called the filament, which supports the anther, a tiny compartment where pollen forms. When a flower is still an immature, unopened bud, the filaments are short and serve to transport nutrients to the developing pollen. As the flower opens, the filaments lengthen and hold the anthers higher in the flower, where the pollen grains are more likely to be picked up by visiting animals, wind, or in the case of some aquatic plants, by water. The animals, wind, or water might then carry the pollen to the stigma of an appropriate flower. The placement of pollen on the stigma is called pollination. Pollination initiates the process of fertilization. Petals: Petals, the next whorl, surround the stamens and collectively are termed the corolla. Many petals have bright colors, which attract animals that carry out pollination, collectively termed pollinators. Three groups of pigments alone or in combination produce a veritable rainbow of petal colors: anthocyanins yield shades of violet, blue, and red; betalains create reds; and carotenoids produce yellows and orange. Petal color can be modified in several ways. Texture, for example, can play a role in the overall effect a smooth petal is shiny, while a rough one appears velvety. If cells inside the petal are filled with starch, they create a white layer that makes pigments appear brighter. Petals with flat air spaces between cells shimmer iridescently. In some flowers, the pigments form distinct patterns, invisible to humans but visible to bees, who can see ultraviolet light. Like the landing strips of an airport, these patterns, called nectar guides, direct bees to the nectar within the flower. Nectar is made in specialized glands located at or near the petal s base. Some flowers secrete copious amounts of nectar and attract big pollinators with large appetites, such as bats. Other flowers, particularly those that depend on wind or water to transport their pollen, may secrete little or no nectar. The petals of many species also are the source of the fragrances that attract pollinators. In these species, the petals house tiny glands that produce essential or volatile oils that vaporize easily, often releasing a distinctive aroma. One flower can make dozens of different essential oils, which mingle to 38

39 yield the flower s unique fragrance. Sepals: The sepals, the outermost whorl, together are called the calyx. In the flower bud, the sepals tightly enclose and protect the petals, stamens, and pistil from rain or insects. The sepals unfurl as the flower opens and often resemble small green leaves at the flower s base. In some flowers, the sepals are colorful and work with the petals to attract pollinators. Sexual reproduction-sexual reproduction mixes the hereditary material from two parents, creating a population of genetically diverse offspring. Such a population can better withstand environmental changes. Unlike animals, flowers cannot move from place to place, yet sexual reproduction requires the union of the egg from one parent with the sperm from another parent. Flowers overcome their lack of mobility through the all-important process of pollination. Pollination, transfer of pollen grains from the male structure of a plant to the female structure of a plant. The pollen grains contain cells that will develop into male sex cells, or sperm. The female structure of a plant contains the female sex cells, or eggs. Pollination prepares the plant for fertilization, the union of the male and female sex cells. Virtually all grains, fruits, vegetables, wildflowers, and trees must be pollinated and fertilized to produce seed or fruit, and pollination is vital for the production of critically important agricultural crops, including corn, wheat, rice, apples, oranges, tomatoes, and squash.1 Pollination occurs in several ways. In most flowers pollinated by insects and other animals, the pollen escapes through pores in the anthers. As pollinators forage for food, the pollen sticks to their body and then rubs off on the flower's stigma, or on the stigma of the next flower they visit. In plants that rely on wind for pollination, the anthers burst open, releasing a cloud of yellow, powdery pollen that drifts to other flowers. In a few aquatic plants, pollen is released into the water, where it floats to other flowers. 1 "Pollination."Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. 39

40 Pollen consists of thousands of microscopic pollen grains. A tough pollen wall surrounds each grain. In most flowers, the pollen grains released from the anthers contain two cells. If a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the same species, the pollen grain germinates one cell within the grain emerges through the pollen wall and contacts the surface of the stigma, where it begins to elongate. The lengthening cell grows through the stigma and style, forming a pollen tube that transports the other cell within the pollen down the style to the ovary. As the tube grows, the cell within it divides to produce two sperm cells, the male sex cells. In some species, the sperm are produced before the pollen is released from the anther. Independently of the pollen germination and pollen tube growth, developmental changes occur within the ovary. The ovule produces several specialized structures among them, the egg, or female sex cell. The pollen tube grows into the ovary, crosses the ovule wall, and releases the two sperm cells into the ovule. One sperm unites with the egg, triggering hormonal changes that transform the ovule into a seed. The outer wall of the ovule develops into the seed coat, while the fertilized egg grows into an embryonic plant. The growing embryonic plant relies on a starchy, nutrient-rich food in the seed called endosperm. Endosperm develops from the union of the second sperm with the two polar nuclei, also known as the central cell nuclei, structures also produced by the ovary. As the seed grows, hormones are released that stimulate the walls of the ovary to expand. It then develops into the fruit. The mature fruit is often hundreds or even thousands of times larger than the tiny ovary from which it grew, and the seeds also are quite large compared to the miniscule ovules from which they originated. The fruits, which are unique to flowering plants, play an extremely important role in dispersing seeds. Animals eat fruits, such as berries and grains. The seeds pass through the digestive tract of the animal unharmed and are deposited in a wide variety of locations, where they germinate to produce the next generation of flowering plants, thus continuing the species. Other fruits are dispersed far and wide by wind or water; the fruit of maple trees, for example, has a wing-like structure that catches the wind 40