The Social Self Objectives:

Transcription

1 The Social Self Objectives: 1) Knowledge of how social experience influences understanding of the self. 2) An understanding of the social self including how people perceive themselves and how they manage the impression others have of them. 3) Knowledge about the role of selfschemata in processing, organizing and remembering information about the self. 1

2 Objectives Continued. 4) An examination of how self-evaluation may be influenced negatively by discrepancies between the actual self and self-guides (imagined selves) and positively by self-handicapping strategies. 5) Knowledge about the impact of culture on self-concept and self-esteem 6) An understanding of the dilemma between expressing oneself accurately and creating favourable impressions on others 2

3 The Social Self - Overall Outline Part 1 Social origins of the self Self Schemas Theories of Self Part 2 Self-Awareness (or self-consciousness) Self-Concept Self-Esteem Self-Evaluation Self-Verification Part 3 Self-Presentation Impression Management Self-Enhancement Self-Enhancement versus Self-Verification Issues of self-esteem. Is low always bad? Culture and the Self Ethnic Identity Formation 3

4 The Social Self - Part 1 Outline Social origins of the self Culture Personal Experience Other people s judgements Roles Self-justification Social Comparison Self-Perception Social Categories (I.e. Gender) Self Schemas Self-schemata Self-Referent Effect Theories of Self Historical and Contemporary 4

5 Development of the Social Self the self helps to organize our social thinking and energize social behavior Culture individualist Western cultures nurture an independent, detached sense of self Collectivist Asian and third world cultures nurture a more interdependent, socially connected sense of self. Personal experience Self-efficacy arises from mastery experiences. To succeed at a challenging task builds one s sense of competence. 5

6 Other people s judgments We see ourselves, in part, as reflected in others impressions and judgments Children whom others label as gifted, hard working, or helpful tend to incorporate such ideas into their self-concepts and behaviour The roles we play As we enact a new role - as university student, parent, salesperson, and so forth - we may initially feel self-conscious Gradually, however, what begins as playacting in the theater of life gets absorbed into our sense of self. Pretense becomes reality. 6

7 Self-justification and self-perception We sometimes feel discomfort after speaking or acting insincerely. Or, we may speak in support of something we haven t really thought much about. In such cases, we can justify our actions by identifying ourselves with them. Social Comparison We tend to be most self-aware of the ways we differ from those around us As a solo female in a group of men, or as a solo Canadian in a group of Europeans, we are self-conscious of our uniqueness. Comparisons with others also shape our selfidentity as rich or poor, smart or dumb, tall or 7 short

8 Social Comparison, Cont. Comparing ourselves to others (Festinger, 1954) Gain self-knowledge by comparing ourselves to others: to someone inferior when the goal is self-enhancement, to someone superior when the goal is self-improvement, and to an equal when the goal is self-assessment Self-knowledge through self-perception we first act and then discover our beliefs and values from our actions Gender and self Identification of social categories to which we belong (e.g. gender, occupation and religion) 8

9 Self-schemas A self schema is a specific belief about oneself that guides the processing of information Event Schemas and Role Schemas also exist On matters relevant to self-schemas, people make rapid judgements about themselves and are quick to recall past actions or predict future actions Self-schemata - organized sets of beliefs and feelings about people and events that guide the processing of information includes both how you might evaluate yourself on various characteristics, and which characteristics you consider important 9

10 Self-schemas, continued Self-schemata guide processing of relevant information (e.g. batting average.250, interpreted as outstanding or mediocre depending on whether or not you intend to play professional baseball) Self-referent effect individuals remember information better when they can relate it to themselves 10

11 Historical and Contemporary notions of self William James Self Theory Outlined the dimensions of the mature self, and contended that things become part of the self through emotional identification. Viewed the self as an object of awareness consisting of three regions (spiritual me, social me, material me) George Herbert Mead s Self Theory outlined how the self develops, and contended that it was largely a cognitive process, brought about through symbolic interaction and role-taking Viewed the self as seen from the imagined perspective of others 11

12 Aspects of the Self, continued Contemporary Theories: Have expanded on the insights of these two historical theorists. View the self as the sum total of a person s thought and feelings that define the self as an object: (aka: self-concept) 12

13 Origins of the social self In our society the self is a preoccupation child s ability to distinguish between me and not me is first step self-knowledge comes about primarily from external experience, particularly relationships with others we construct our self-concept (i.e. feelings, beliefs, and impressions that individuals have about themselves) from interpreting our own actions much like we interpret those of other individuals 13

14 Narcissism, like selfishness, is an overcompensation for the basic lack of self-love Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom,

15 Aspects of the Self William James Self Theory George Herbert Mead s Self Theory Contemporary Theories Outlined the dimensions of the mature self, and contended that things become part of the self through emotional identification Outlined how the self develops, and contended that it was largely a cognitive process, brought about through symbolic interaction and role-taking Have expanded upon the insights of these two past theorists 15

16 Aspects of the Self William James Self Theory George Herbert Mead s Self Theory Contemporary Theories The term used to describe the Subjective self: The I : The self as the passing thought The term used to describe the Subjective self: The I : the self as a spontaneous actor The term used to describe the Subjective self: No one inclusive term, but rather, all cognitive and affective processes, including selfawareness and monitoring 16

17 William James Self Theory Aspects of the Self George Herbert Mead s Self Theory The term used to describe the Objective self: The me : The self as an object of awareness consisting of three regions (spiritual me, social me, and material me) The term used to describe the Objective self: The me : the self as seen from the imagined perspective of others Contemporary Theories The term used to describe the Objective self: Self-concept : the sum total of a person s thoughts and feelings that define the self as an object 17

18 Social Self - Part 2 Outline Examination of Other Self Terms and Processes Self-awareness (or self-consciousness) The self-awareness trap Inducers and effects of self-awareness Self-concept Theory about ourselves Self-esteem self-esteem items The need for self-esteem Discrepancies in Self-esteem Higgins Self-discrepancy theory Self-evaluation Self-handicapping Relative Deprivation Self-Monitoring Individual Differences in self-monitoring self-monitoring scale Self-Verification 18

19 Self-awareness awareness (e.g. focus of attention) directed toward oneself can be focused on private aspects (e.g. emotions, motives, personal standards) or public aspects (e.g. physical appearance, selfpresentations) tendency to engage in this self-aware state is known as self-consciousness Self-consciousness can hence be described in private and public terms 19

20 Items that Measure Private Self-Consciousness (Fenigstein et al, 1975) I m always trying to figure myself out I m constantly examining my motives I m often the subject of my fantasies I m alert to changes in my mood I m aware of the way my mind works when I work on a problem. 20

21 Items that Measure Public Self-Consciousness (Fenigstein et al, 1975) I m concerned about what other people think of me I m self-conscious about the way I look I m concerned about the way I present myself I usually worry about making a good impression One of the last things I do before leaving my house is look in the mirror 21

22 The Self-Awareness Trap In general, people spend little time actually thinking about themselves. But, certain situations and objects (mirrors, cameras, audiences) increase self-awareness, and certain people are generally more selfconscious than others Self-awareness forces us to notice selfdiscrepancies and can produce a temporary reduction in self-esteem. To cope, we either adjust our behavior to meet our standards, or withdraw from the self-focusing situation. Heavy drinking can be viewed as a means of escaping from self-awareness. 22

23 Inducers and Effects of Private and Public Self- Awareness - (Buss, 1980) Private Self-awareness Inducers Focus Effects being asked about mood intensification your current mood emotions of emotion small mirror Public Self-awareness Inducers Focus Effects being watched/ physical evaluation or ignored by others appearance, apprehension voice cameras temporary loss tape recorders of self-esteem large mirrors 23

24 Self-concept (The me ) Due to self-awareness, we develop a theory about ourselves Self-schemas - the hypotheses which make up self-concept Spontaneous self-concept - aspect of the selfconcept that is salient and activated in a particular setting Social Identities - the aspects of the self concept based on group membership Self Esteem Develop not only a theory of ourselves, but also an evaluation of this theory 24

25 Self-esteem items like me or not like me Things usually bother me I find it hard to talk in front of a group There are lots of things about my self I d change if I could I can make up my mind without too much trouble I m a lot of fun to be with It is pretty tough to be me 25

26 Self Esteem Self-esteem refers to a person s positive and negative evaluations of the self. The need for Self-esteem People have a need for high self-esteem and want to see themselves in a positive light. People with low self-esteem often find themselves caught in a vicious cycle of selfdefeating behavior 26

27 Discrepancies in Self Esteem Self-esteem can be defined as the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves. Large self-discrepancies are associated with negative emotional states. Discrepancies between the actual and ideal selves are related to feelings of disappointment and depression Discrepancies between the actual and the ought selves are related to shame, guilt and anxiety. These emotional effects depend on the amount of discrepancy and whether we are consciously focused on it. 27

28 Self-discrepancy Theory (Higgins) Based on the premise that gaps between actual and possible selves can lead to emotional difficulties actual self is monitored in comparison to some desired end-state. 28

29 Higgins Self-discrepancy Theory Self-Guides 1) Ideal self: Myself as I wish to be 2) Ought self: Myself as I should be Discrepancies Associated Emotions 1) self versus ideal disappointment, depression 2) self versus ought guilt, shame, anxiety Why discrepancy? 1) Self-evaluation too low 2) Self-guide too high 29

30 Self-Evaluation Positive self-esteem is imperative to good mental health. Low self-esteem leaves people vulnerable to all sorts of personal difficulties and social pressures Maintaining a positive self-evaluation Self-handicapping - people arrange in advance for impediments to a successful performance 30

31 Self-handicapping, cont. People arrange in advance for impediments to a successful performance done to maintain a positive self-evaluation Ways people self-handicap Reduce their preparation for important individual athletic events Not try as hard as they could during a tough ego-involving task Give their opponent an advantage Report feeling depressed Perform poorly at the beginning of a task in order to not create unreachable expectations 31

32 Relative Deprivation possessing less of something of value than others in society, whether or not one suffers from absolute deprivation - affects selfevaluation Self-monitoring Monitoring the subtle responses in others in evaluating our own behavior high self-monitors look to others for cues about appropriate behavior low self monitors might spend more time and effort organizing information that they know about themselves, developing a more complex self-image. Self-verification seeking feedback from others that is consistent with our own self-esteem 32

33 Individual Differences in Self-Monitoring Individuals differ in the tendency to regulate their behavior to meet the demands of social situations. High self-monitors modify their behavior, as appropriate, from one situation to the next. Low self-monitors express themselves in a more consistent manner, exhibiting at all times what they see as their true self 33

34 Self-Monitoring Scale (Synder, 1979) I find it hard to imitate the behavior of other people. At parties and social gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe. I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have no information. I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain others. 34

35 Outline Part 3 : More self-terms and processes: Self-Presentation Two faces of self-presentation Impression Management Impression management or self-presentation strategies Self-presentation risks Self-Enhancement Self-enhancement versus Self-verification Issues of self-esteem. Is low always bad? Culture and individualist self-esteem high self-esteem and aggression Culture and the Self Ethnic Identity Formation 35

36 Self-Presentation Self-Presentation is the process by which we try to shape what others think of us and even what we think of ourselves The two faces of self-presentation There area basically two motives for selfpresentation: The first is strategic, when we try to shape others impressions in order to be liked or seen as competent. The second is self-verification, by which we try to get others to perceive us as we perceive ourselves. 36

37 Self-Presentation, continued People regulate their behavior both to create a good impression and to be authentic People want to feel good about themselves, and to know themselves, and the competition between these goals creates a dilemma for them. Impression management strategies Provide self enhancement. Types include: Ingratiation Exemplification Modesty Self-promotion Intimidation Supplication 37

38 Impression Management Is useful to present aspects of yourself that best suit your goals in the situation e.g. tell risque jokes at a party may create a favourable impression of you as a fun person, but at a job interview would be viewed unfavourably. 38

39 Common Self-presentation strategies (Jones, 1990) Attributions Negative Emotions Sought Attributions to be Typical Risked Aroused Actions Self-Promotion Competent Conceited Respect Performance Claims Exemplification Worthy Hypocrite Guilt Self-Denial Modesty Likable and Nonassertive Affection Understatement competent and respect Intimidation Dangerous Blowhard Fear Threats Supplication Helpless Stigmatized Nurturance Self-deprecation Ingratiation Likable Brown-noser Affection Compliments and favours 39

40 Mechanisms of Self-Enhancement Most people think highly of themselves and act to protect their self-esteem. There are four ways of achieving this: The first is through self-serving cognitions, such as taking credit for success but denying the blame for failure. Second, people make excuses and even selfhandicap (e.g. reduced effort or drug use) in order to excuse anticipated failure. Third, people often bask in reflected glory, boosting self-esteem through their associations with successful others. Fourth, people often compare themselves with others who are less happy, less successful, or less fortunate. 40

41 Self-Enhancement versus Self-Verification Self-enhancement Goal: To feel good about oneself We seek feedback that increases, or at least maintains, our feelings of self-worth Self-verification Goal: To know oneself We seek feedback which is consistent with our actual self. Question: Is low self-esteem always bad? Markus: Culture and individualistic self-esteem Baumeister: high self-esteem and aggression 41

42 Culture and The Self Culture affects both self-concept and self-esteem Individualist views of self cultures value competition, independence, and individual achievement people are more likely to see themselves as unique derive self-esteem from purely personal accomplishments more sensitive to success situations than to failure situations self-focused emotions 42

43 Collectivist views of self People identify themselves in terms of social roles, relationships, and institutions self-esteem tends to be particularly sensitive to failure situations people express other-focused emotions 43

44 Ethnic Identity Formation Stage 1: Unexamined ethnic identity Lack of exploration of ethnicity, due to lack of interest or due to having merely adopted other people s opinions of ethnicity. (Erickson s moratorium or foreclosure?) Stage 2: Ethnic Identity Search Involvement in exploring and seeking to understand the meaning of ethnicity for oneself, often sparked by some incident which focused attention on one s minority status in the dominant culture. Stage 3: Achieved ethnic identity. Clear and confident sense of one s own ethnic identity; able to identify and internalize those aspects of the dominant culture that are acceptable and stand against those that are 44 oppressive.